THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
POLITICAL SCIENCE
THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
POLITICAL SCIENCE George Thomas Kurian, editor in chief James E. Alt Simone Chambers Geoffrey Garrett Margaret Levi Paula D. McClain ASSOCIATE EDITORS Prepared with the assistance of the American Political Science Association
A Division of SAGE Washington, D.C.
CQ Press 2300 N Street, NW, Suite 800 Washington, DC 20037 Phone: 202-729-1900; toll-free, 1-866-4CQ-PRESS (1-866-427-7737) Web: www.cqpress.com Copyright © 2011 by CQ Press, a division of SAGE. CQ Press is a registered trademark of Congressional Quarterly Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Cover design: Anne C. Kerns, Anne Likes Red, Inc. Cover photos: Protest in India: Associated Press, Mustafa Quraishi; Afghan women vote: Associated Press, Alexandra Boulat; Japanese Parliment: Kyodo; U.S. Supreme Court: Jarek Tuszynski, Wikimedia Commons, CC-BY-SA-3.0; Iraqi Kurdish women militia: Associated Press, Hasan Sarbakhshian Maps: International Mapping Associates Composition: C&M Digitals (P) Ltd. The paper used in this publication exceeds the requirements of the American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1992. Printed and bound in the United States of America 14 13 12 11 10 1 2 3 4 5 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data The encyclopedia of political science/George Thomas Kurian, editor-in-chief. 5 v. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-933116-44-0 (alk. paper) 1. Political science—Encyclopedias. I. Kurian, George Thomas. II. Title. JA61.E513 2011 320.03—dc22 2010036238
CONTENTS
Alphabetical Table of Contents vii Thematic Table of Contents xxi About the Editors xxxvii List of Authors xli Preface lv Introduction lix Entries, A–Z 1 Index, following page 1802
ALPHABETICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS Abortion and Politics Absentee Voting Absolutism Academic Freedom Accountability Addams, Jane Additional Member System Adjudication Administrative Courts Administrative Law Administrative State Adorno, Theodor W. Adverse Selection and Moral Hazard Advertising, Political Advise and Consent Advocacy Coalition Networks Advocacy Groups Affirmative Action Aflaq, Michel African Political Economy African Political Thought African Politics and Society African Union Afro-Marxism Agenda Control Agenda Setting Agrarianism AIDS, Politics of Alienation, Political Alighieri, Dante Alker, Hayward R. Allegiance Alliances Almond, Gabriel Alternate Delegate Althusius, Johannes Althusser, Louis Americanization Amicus Curiae Briefs Analytic Narrative Anarchism Anarchy Anglophone Africa Animal Rights Anthony, Susan Brownell Anti- and Alter-globalization Movements
1 3 3 4 5 9 10 10 11 13 14 15 15 16 17 18 20 21 22 23 24 26 30 32 33 34 36 37 38 40 40 41 43 44 45 45 46 46 48 48 51 52 54 56 57 58
Anticlericalism Anti-democratic Thought Anti-Semitism Antitrust Policy Apartheid Apparentement Appeasement Appropriation Approval Voting Aprismo Arab-Israeli Relations Arab League Arab Political Economy Arab Political Thought Arab Socialism Arbitration Arendt, Hannah Aristotle Armenian Genocide Arms Control Arms Race Arnold, Thurman Wesley Aron, Raymond Articles of Confederation Asian American Identity and Groups Asian Political Thought Asia Pacific Region Politics and Society Assassinations, Political Assimilation Astell, Mary Asylum Rights Asymmetric Wars Atlantic Charter At-Large Elections Attorney General Augustine of Hippo Australian Ballot Autarky Authoritarianism, African Authority Autocracy Autogestion Autogolpe Autonomy Baathism Bachrach, Peter
59 60 62 63 65 66 66 67 67 68 68 69 70 71 72 73 73 75 75 77 81 83 83 84 85 86 91 95 96 97 98 99 100 100 101 101 102 103 103 104 106 107 107 107 109 110
viii Alphabetical Table of Contents Bagehot, Walter Bahro, Rudolf Bakunin, Mikhail Balance of Power Balkans Ballot Design Baltic States Banana Republic Bandwagoning Banfield, Edward C. Banks, Jeffrey S. Barker, Ernest Barrès, Maurice Basque Separatism Bassett, Reginald Baudrillard, Jean Bauer, Otto Bayesian Analysis Beard, Charles A. Beauvoir, Simone de Beccaria, Cesare Beer, Samuel Hutchison Behavioral Game Theory Bellarmine, Robert Bentham, Jeremy Bentley, Arthur Fisher Berelson, Bernard R. Berle, Adolf Augustus Berlin, Isaiah Bernstein, Eduard Bill of Rights Binomial Electoral System Bioethics and Politics Biology and Political Science Blackstone, William Blanqui, Louis-Auguste Bloc Bloch, Ernst Block Vote Blogs and Bloggers Bobbio, Norberto Bodin, Jean Boff, Leonardo Bolshevism Bonald, Louis Gabriel-Ambroise, vicomte de Bookchin, Murray Boundary Making and Boundary Disputes Bourdieu, Pierre Boycott Brinkmanship British Political Thought Bryce, James Buddhist Political Thought Budgeting Bukharin, Nikolai Ivanovich Bull, Hedley
111 111 112 113 113 115 117 120 120 121 121 122 123 123 124 125 125 126 126 127 128 128 129 130 131 132 132 133 134 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 140 141 141 142 143 144 144 145 146 147 147 149 150 150 150 154 154 156 159 160
Bunche, Ralph Johnson Bureaucracy Bureaucratic Authoritarianism Burke, Edmund Burnham, James Business Cycles, Political Business Preference Formation Business Pressure in Politics By(e)-election Cabinets and Cabinet Formation Caciquismo/Coronelismo Caesarism Calhoun, John Calvin, John Cambridge School Campaign Advertising Campaign Finance Campaigns Campbell, Albert Angus Camus, Albert Candidate Recruitment Candidate Selection Capitalism and Democracy Capital Punishment Caribbean Carr, E. H. Carter, Gwendolen M. Cartoons, Political Case Studies Caste System Castoriadis, Cornelius Casus Belli Catlin, George Edward Gordon Caucus Causal Inference Causation and Correlation Censorship Censure Center-periphery Relations (Federalism) Central Bank Centralization, Deconcentration, and Decentralization Centrally Planned Economy Chamberlain, Houston Stewart Chancellor Charisma Chartism Chauvinism Checks and Balances Children’s Rights Chinese Political Thought Christian Democratic Parties Christian Socialism Church and State Cicero, Marcus Tullius Citizen Knowledge Citizenship
161 162 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 175 176 176 177 179 181 184 184 185 187 188 189 193 196 196 197 198 199 200 201 201 201 202 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 211 212 212 216 217 220 221 222 224 225 226
Alphabetical Table of Contents ix City-republic Civic Education Civic Engagement Civic Humanism Civil and Political Rights Civil Disobedience Civil Law Civil-military Relations Civil Religion Civil Rights Movement Civil Service Civil Society Civil Wars Clash of Civilizations Class and Politics Class Consciousness, Envy, and Conflict Clericalism Clientelism Clientelistic Parties in Latin America Climate Change Conferences, United Nations Cloture Coalition Formation Coalition Theory Cognitive Theory and Politics Cohabitation Cold War Cole, George Douglas Howard Collapsed and Failed States Collective Action, Theory of Collective Action and Mobilization Collectivization Colonialism Colonial Wars Commerce Clause Common Goods Common Law Commonwealth Communalism Commune Communication, Two-step Flow of Communism Communism, Fall of, and End of History Communitarianism Community Community Power Compulsory Voting Computational Modeling Comte, Auguste Concept Analysis Concordat Condorcet, Marquis de Confessional Parties Conflict Resolution Confucian Political Thought Congress, Contempt of Conseil d’État
230 231 233 233 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 246 247 248 252 253 253 254 255 257 257 258 259 261 261 263 264 265 266 270 271 274 275 276 280 281 283 283 284 284 286 287 288 290 291 291 292 293 293 293 294 295 296 298 299
Consensus Consent of the Governed Consequentialism Conservatism Conservative Parties Consociational Democracy Constant de Rebeque, Henri-Benjamin Constituency Constituency Relations Constitutional Amendments Constitutional Courts Constitutional Democracy Constitutional Law Constitutional Monarchy Constitutional Systems, Comparative Constitution Amending Procedures Constitutions, Unwritten Constitutions and Constitutionalism Constructivism Consultants, Political Consumer Society Contagion of the Left Containment Content Analysis Contentious Politics Contractarianism Convenience Voting Convergence Theory Cooperative Security Copyright Corporation Correlation Corruption, Political Corruption and Other Political Pathologies Corwin, Edward Samuel Cosmopolitanism Cost-benefit Analysis Counter-Enlightenment Political Thought Counterfactual Coup d’État Covenant Crime Policy Crisis Rhetoric Critical Juncture Critical Race Theory Critical Realignment Theory Critical Theory Croce, Benedetto Crosland, Charles Anthony Raven Crossman, Richard Cryptography Cube Law Cue Taking Cult of Personality Cultural Policy Cultural Relations
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x Alphabetical Table of Contents Cultural Rights Culture Wars Cumulative Voting Cybersecurity Cyberterrorism Davos Conference Dealignment Debates, Political Decisionism Decision Theory, Foundations of Decolonization Delegated Legislation Delegation, Theories of Deliberation Deliberative Democracy Democracies, Advanced Industrial Democracy Democracy, Future of Democracy and Corruption Democracy and Democratization Democracy and Development Democratic Centralism Democratic Peace Democratic Socialism Democratic Theory Democratic Theory, Parties in Democratic Transition Deontology Dependence Dependency Theory Deracialization Deregulation Derrida, Jacques Descriptive Representation Détente Deterrence Deutsch, Karl W. Development, Economic Development, Political Economy of Development Administration Devolution Dewey, John Dexter, Lewis Anthony Dhimmi D’Hondt Method Dialectical Materialism Diasporas Dicey, Albert Venn Dictatorship of the Proletariat Diderot, Denis Digital Democracy Diplomacy Direct Democracy Dirigisme Disability Rights Disaster Relief
369 370 371 372 373 375 375 375 377 378 380 381 382 383 385 386 387 391 392 394 398 399 399 401 403 404 406 407 407 407 409 409 411 412 413 414 415 416 420 421 423 424 425 425 426 426 427 428 429 429 430 431 436 438 439 440
Discourse Analysis Discrimination Disenfranchisement Disinformation Dissolution Distribution of Powers (in a Federation) Distributive Justice Districting District Magnitude Divided Government Divine Right of Kings Doctrines Domino Theory Droop Quota Drug Cartels Drug Policy Dual Citizenship and Dual Nationality Dual Executive Du Bois, William Edward Burghardt Due Process Duration Model Durkheim, Émile Duverger’s Law Eckstein, Harry Ecological Analysis Ecological Fallacy Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights Economic Development, State-led Economic Interdependence Economic Policy Formulation Economic Systems, Comparative Economic Theories of the State Eco-terrorism Edelman, Murray J. Education Policy Education Policy, Higher E-governance, E-voting, E-democracy, E-politics Einaudi, Mario Luigi Elazar, Daniel J. Election Commission Election Monitoring Electoral Administration Electoral College Electoral Cycles Electoral Formulas Electoral Geography Electoral Quotas Electoral Reform Electoral Rules Electoral Systems Electoral Systems, Comparative Electronic Voting Elite Decision Making Elite Interview Elites, Political Elite Theory
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Alphabetical Table of Contents xi Emergency Powers Emerging Democracies Emerging Democracies, Political Parties in Emotions in Politics Empire and Democracy Empiricism Empowerment Encuentros Endangered Cultures Engels, Friedrich Enlightenment Political Thought Entitlements Environmental Policy Environmental Political Theory Equality and Inequality Equal Protection Equilibrium and Chaos Error Correction Model Essentialism Estates Ethics, Political Ethnic Cleansing Ethnic Parties Ethnocentrism Europe, Democracy in Europeanization European Parliament European Political Thought European Politics and Society European Union (EU) Euthanasia Evangelicalism Event History and Duration Modeling Executive Immunity Executive Order Executive Pardon Executive Privilege Executive, The Exit Poll Experimental Design Extradition Extraterritoriality Fabianism Faction Fainsod, Merle Fairness Faith-based Initiative False Consciousness Family Values Fanon, Frantz Al-Farabi Farm Lobby Fascism Fascist Parties Federalism Federalism, Comparative
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Federalism and Foreign Relations Federalist Papers Federal Mandates Federation and Confederation Feminism Feminism, Postcolonial Feminism, Radical Feminism, Socialist Feminist Legal Theory Feminist Movement Feminist Parties Feminist Political Theory Feminization of Poverty Feudalism Fidelism (Castroism) Field Experiment Filibuster Filmer, Sir Robert First Past the Post Fiscal Conservatism Fiscal Policy Floating Voter Follett, Mary Parker Food Policy Ford, Henry Jones Forecasting, Political Foreign Aid Foreign Direct Investment Foreign Policy Foreign Policy Role Formal Political Theory Foucault, Michel Paul Fractionalization Index Framing and Public Opinion Francophone Africa Frank, Andre Gunder Frankfurt School Freedom Freedom of Assembly Freedom of Association Freedom of Conscience Freedom of Information Freedom of Movement Freedom of Religion Freedom of Speech Freedom of the Press Freedom to Bear Arms Free Trade Freezing of Party Alternatives Freire, Paulo French Political Thought Freund, Ernst Friedan, Betty Fringe Parties Fromm, Erich Functionalism
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xii Alphabetical Table of Contents Functional Representation Fundamentalism Furnivall, John Sydenham G7/G8 and G20 Game Theory Gandhism Garbage Can Model of the Policy Process Garvey, Marcus M. Gatekeeping Gellner, Ernest Gender and Globalization Gender and Politics Gender Gap Gender Issues Gender Mainstreaming Gender Quotas General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) General Assembly, United Nations (UN) General Will Geneva Conventions Genocide Gentile, Giovanni Geopolitics George, Alexander L. George, Henry German Political Thought Gerrymandering Gilman, Charlotte Anna Perkins Glasnost Glass Ceiling Gleichshaltung Global Democratic Deficit Globalism Globalization Globalization and Development Godwin, William Goldman, Emma Good Governance Goodnow, Frank Johnson Gosnell, Harold Foote Governability Governance Governor Gramsci, Antonio Great Power Great Society Greek Democracy, Classical Greek Political Thought, Ancient Green Parties Grotius, Hugo Group Cohesion Group Relations Group Theory Groupthink Guest Workers Guild Socialism
642 642 644 645 646 647 648 649 650 650 651 652 657 657 659 660 661 661 663 663 665 666 666 667 668 668 672 673 674 674 674 674 675 676 680 681 682 683 684 685 686 687 691 691 692 693 693 695 698 699 700 701 702 703 704 705
Gulf States Gulick, Luther Halsey, III Gunboat Diplomacy Habeas Corpus Hamilton, Alexander Hamiltonianism Harrington, James Hartz, Louis Hate Speech Hayek, Freidrich August von Health Care Policy Heckscher, Gunnar Heckscher-Ohlin Theorem Hegedus, Andras Hegel, Georg W. F. Hegemony Heidegger, Martin Herzen, Alexander I. Heuristics Hierarchical Modeling Hilferding, Rudolf Hindu Political Thought Historical Interpretation Historical Method, Comparative Historicism Hobbes, Thomas Hobhouse, Leonard Trelawney Hobson, John Atkinson Holcombe, Arthur N. Holocaust Homeland Security Homelessness Homophobia Hook, Sidney Hooker, Richard Horkheimer, Max Horn of Africa Horvat, Branko Human Development Index Humanitarian Intervention Human Nature and Politics Human Rights Human Security Hume, David Humor, Political Huntington, Samuel P. Hyneman, Charles S. Ibn Taymiyya Idealism Identity, Politics of Ideologies, Political Illich, Ivan Immigration, Effects on Intergroup Relations Immigration, Politics of Immigration Policy Immobolisme
706 709 710 711 712 712 713 714 714 716 716 718 718 719 719 720 721 722 723 723 724 725 726 726 727 728 729 730 731 731 732 733 734 735 736 736 737 739 739 740 743 745 749 751 751 753 754 755 755 756 759 762 763 764 766 767
Alphabetical Table of Contents xiii Impeachment Imperialism Impossibility Theorem Impoundment Incrementalism Incumbency Indian Ocean Region Indirect Elections Individual and Society Individualism Industrial Democracy Inference Information Society Information Technology and Politics Initiative and Referendum Inner Cities Inspector General Institutionalism, Comparative Insurgency Insurrection and Insurgency Intellectual Property Rights Intelligence Failure Intelligence Services Interdependence Interest Aggregation and Articulation Interest Groups and Lobbies Intergovernmental Relations Internal Colonialism International Administration International Bill of Rights International Cooperation International Court of Justice (ICJ) International Criminal Court (ICC) International Criminal Tribunals International Labor Organization (ILO) International Labor Standards International Law International Monetary Fund International Norms International Organization International Political Economy International Relations International Relations Doctrines of Power International Relations Theory International Relations Worldviews and Frameworks International System Internet and Politics Interregnum Intersectionality Interstate Compacts Interstate Rendition Interview Techniques Investiture Iron Curtain Irredentism Islamic Political Thought
768 768 772 774 774 775 775 777 778 779 780 781 781 783 786 787 789 789 791 793 794 795 796 797 798 799 802 807 808 809 810 812 813 814 815 816 817 817 818 819 823 824 828 829 831 832 834 835 835 836 837 837 838 839 839 840
Isolationism Italian Political Thought Jabotinsky,Vladimir Jacksonian Democracy Jacobinism Jacobson, Harold K. James, Cyril Lionel Robert James, William Jennings, Ivor Jeremiad Jewish Political Thought Jihad Jim Crow Journalism, Political Judgment, Political Judgment and Decision-Making Judicial Activism Judicial Behavior Judicial Independence Judicial Philosophy and Decision Making Judicial Restraint Judicial Review Judicial Selection and Nomination Judicial Supremacy Judicial Systems, Comparative Judiciary Jurisprudence and Legal Theory Justice and Injustice Just War Theory Kant, Immanuel Kashmir Kautilya Kautsky, Karl Johann Kelsen, Hans Kemalism Key,V. O., Jr. Keynes, John Maynard Keynesianism Kirchheimer, Otto Kita Ikki Knowledge Management Kohr, Leopold Kollontay, Aleksandra Mikhaylovna Kropotkin, Peter Kuhn, Thomas Kyoto Protocol Labor Policy Labor Strikes Labor Unions Laicite Laissez-faire Language and Language Policy Language and Politics Laski, Harold Joseph Lasswell, Harold Dwight Latin America and Globalization
842 843 849 849 850 851 851 852 853 853 853 855 856 857 858 859 859 861 862 863 865 867 868 869 871 872 876 881 885 887 887 889 889 890 890 892 892 893 894 895 896 896 896 897 898 898 901 903 903 904 905 906 907 910 911 912
xiv Alphabetical Table of Contents Latin American Political Economy Latin American Political Thought Latin American Politics and Society Latino Partisanship and Ideological Orientations Latino Politics Law, Comparative Law and Society Lazarsfeld, Paul F. Leadership League of Nations Le Bon, Gustave Left Legal Profession Legal Realism Legislative Drafting Legislative Hearings Legislative Systems Legislative Systems, Comparative Legislature-court Relations Legitimacy Legitimate Violence Lenin,Vladimir Ilich Leninism Lerner, Max Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Movements, Comparative Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Political Participation Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Politics Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Rights Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender U.S. Legal Questions Liang Qichao Liberal Democracy Liberalism, Classical Liberal Parties Liberal Theory Liberation Theology Libertarianism Li Dazhao Lieber, Francis Limited Vote Lincoln, Abraham Linear Model Lipset, Seymour Martin Lipsius, Justus Lobbies, Professional Lobbying Local Politics Locke, John Logistic Regression Lowell, A. Lawrence Lower Chamber Lukács, Gyorgy Lusophone Africa Lustration
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Luther, Martin Luxemburg, Rosa Lu Xun Lyotard, Jean-François Machiavelli, Niccolò Machine Politics Macpherson, Crawford Brough Macroeconomics Madison, James Maghreb Magna Carta Maistre, Joseph Marie de Majority-minority District Malatesta, Errico Mandarins Mandate System Mandate Theory Manifesto Mannheim, Karl Maoism Marcuse, Herbert Marginal District Mariátegui, José Carlos Maritain, Jacques Market Socialism Marshall Plan Marsilius of Padua Martial Law Marx, Karl Marxism Marxist Parties Mashriq Mass Immigration Mass Political Behavior Mayor McCarthyism McKelvey, Richard Measurement Theory Media, Political Commentary in the Media and Politics Media Bias Media Effect Megacities Menshevism Mercantilism Meritocracy Merleau-Ponty, Maurice Merriam, Charles E. Mexican Immigration Michels, Robert Microeconomics Middle East Democratization Middle Eastern Politics and Society Migration Miliband, Ralph Military Courts
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Alphabetical Table of Contents xv Military-industrial Complex Military Rule Militias Mill, James Mill, John Stuart Millennium Development Goals Miller, Warren Mills, C. Wright Milton, John Minimal Effects Model Minimal State Mining Policy Minority Representation Misogyny Mission Civilisatrice Mixed Method Mobilization, Political Modernization Monarchy Monetary Policy Monetary Union Money Laundering Monroe Doctrine Montaigne, Michel de Montesquieu, Charles-Louis Moore, Barrington, Jr. More, Sir Thomas Morgenthau, Hans Joachim Morris, William Mosca, Gaetano Motion Pictures and Politics Multiculturalism Multilateralism Multilevel Analysis Multinational Corporation (MNC) Multiple Streams Theory Municipal Government Music, Political Mutual Assured Destruction Mutualism NAACP Legal Defense and Education Fund Nation National Anthems National Archives Nationalism Nationalist Parties Nationality Nationalization National Security Policy National Socialism Nation-Building Nation-State Naturalization Natural Law Natural Rights Necessary and Sufficient Condition
1035 1036 1037 1038 1039 1039 1040 1041 1042 1042 1043 1044 1044 1045 1046 1047 1047 1048 1052 1053 1055 1056 1057 1058 1058 1059 1060 1061 1061 1062 1063 1064 1065 1066 1066 1067 1068 1069 1071 1071 1073 1074 1075 1076 1077 1082 1083 1084 1086 1087 1088 1089 1090 1092 1093 1094
Negative Campaigning Negotiations and Bargaining Négritude Neoconservatism Nepotism Network Society Neumann, Franz Neuroscience and Politics Neustadt, Richard E. Neutrality New Conservatism New Deal New Europe New Institutionalism New Left Newly Industrializing Countries (NIC) New Right News, Construction of New World Order Niebuhr, Reinhold Nietzsche, Friedrich Nobel Peace Prize Nonalignment Noncombatant Prisoners Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs) Nonstate Actors Nontariff Barriers to Trade Nonviolence Normative Theory North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Northern Ireland North-South Relations Nove, Alec Novel, Political Nozick, Robert Nuclear Club Nuclear Proliferation and Nonproliferation Numeraire and Dollarization Oakeshott, Michael Joseph Obligation, Theories of Occupation and Annexation Ogg, Frederick Austin Okin, Susan Moller Old Europe Oligarchy Oligarchy, Iron Law of Olson, Mancur Ombudsman Ombudsman, Parliamentary One-party Systems Open Government Opposition Politics Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Organization of American States (OAS)
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xvi Alphabetical Table of Contents Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) Organization Theory Organized Crime and Mafia Oriental Despotism Original Intent Ortega y Gasset, José Orthodoxy in Political Thought Orwell, George Otsuka Hisao Oversight Owen, Robert Pacifism and Conscientious Objection Paine, Thomas Palestine Pan-Africanism Pan-Arabism and Pan-Islamism Panchayat Panel Studies Panethnicity Papacy Parametric Statistical Model Pareto,Vilfredo Parliamentary Democracy Parliamentary Discipline Parliamentary Government Parliamentary Immunity Parliamentary Privilege Parliamentary Rhetoric Parsons, Talcott Partial Least Squares Participant Observation Participatory Democracy Party and Social Structure Party Discipline Party Finance Party Identification Party Law Party Membership Party Organization Party Systems, Comparative Paternalism Path Dependencies Patriarchy Patronage Patron-client Networks Pax Americana Peace Peace Corps Pentecostalism Perestroika Performance Management Peronism Petition Peuchet, Jacques
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Pillarization Plato Plebiscite Plekhanov, Grigorii Valentinovich Pluralism Poetry and Politics Polanyi, Karl Police Powers Police State Policy Analysis Policy-centered Entrepreneurship Policy Evaluation Policy Innovation Policy Meta-analysis Policy Networks and Communications Policy Theory Political Action Committee (PAC) Political Agents Political Anthropology Political Attitudes and Behavior Political Change Political Communication Political Correctness Political Culture Political Discourse Political Ecology Political Economy Political Economy, Comparative Political Geography Political Law Political Network Analysis Political Obligation Political Participation Political Parties Political Party Platform Political Philosophy Political Prisoners Political Psychology Political Risk Assessment Political Science, History of Political Science Associations Political Science Journals Political Sociology Political Theology Political Theory Political Thought, Foundations of Politics Politics, Comparative Politics, Literature, and Film Polling, History of Polsby, Nelson Polyarchy Polybius Pool, Ithiel de Sola Popper, Karl Raimund Pork Barrel
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Alphabetical Table of Contents xvii Position Taking Positive Discrimination Positive Theory Post-9/11 Politics Postcolonial Theory Postcommunism Postcommunist Transformation Postindependent Africa, Politics and Governance in Postindustrial Society Postmodernism Poulantzas, Nicos Poverty Power Power Cycle Theory Power Indices Power Sharing Power Transition Theory Pragmatism Prebendalism Prebisch, Raúl Precedent Predatory Government Preemption Preferential Voting Prerogative Presidencialismo Presidency and Women Press/Fourth Estate Pressure Groups Price and Wage Controls Priestley, Joseph Primaries Prime Minister (Head of Government) Priming Primitive Communism Principal-agent Theory Prisoner’s Dilemma Prisoners of War (POWs) Privacy Privacy Rights Privatization Process Tracing Program Evaluation and Auditing Programmatic Party Progress Progressivism Proletariat Pronunciamiento Propaganda Property Rights Proportionality Proportional Representation Prospect Theory Protectionism and Tariffs Protestant Political Thought Protest Music
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Protests and Demonstrations Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph Psephology Ptolemy of Lucca Public Diplomacy Public Domain Public Enterprises Public Good Public Interest Groups Public Opinion Public Policy Public Policy Development Public-private Dichotomy Public Utilities Pufendorf, Samuel Punctuated Equilibrium Puritanism Pye, Lucien Al-Qaida Q-methodology Qualified Majority Voting Qualitative Analysis Qualitative Methodologies Quality of Life Quangos Quantitative Analysis Quasi-experiment Queer Theory Questionnaire Question Time Quotas Race and Gender Race and Racism Racial Discrimination Radicalism Raison d’État Rand, Ayn Rational Choice Theory Rawls, John Realignment, Partisan Realism and Neorealism Recall Reciprocity Redistricting Reformation Political Thought Refugees Regime Regime Change Regional Integration, Comparative Regional Security Regions and Regional Governments Regression with Categorical Data Regulation and Rulemaking Reich, Wilhelm Relative Power Relativism
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xviii Alphabetical Table of Contents Reliability Reliability and Validity Assessment Religion and Politics Religious Minorities Religious Parties Religious Persecution Religious Right Renner, Karl Rent-seeking Reparations Representation and Representative Representative Democracy Representative Systems Reproductive Rights Republic Republicanism Republicanism, Classical Resampling Methods Research Design Reserved Seat Responsibility Reverse Discrimination Revisionism Revolutions, Comparative Rhetoric Ricardo, David Right Right to Die Right to Life Riker, William Rogue States Rokkan, Stein Roll-call Analysis Roll Off Roman Catholic Social Thought Roman Political Thought Rorty, Richard Rothbard, Murray N. Rotten Boroughs Rousseau, Jean-Jacques Roy, Manabendra Nath Rulemaking Rule of Law Rules of Order Run-off Russell, Bertrand Russian Political Thought Sabine, George Holland Sacrificial Lamb Candidacy Said, Edward Saint-Simon, Claude-Henri Sanctions and Embargoes Sandinismo Sartre, Jean-Paul Satire, Political Satyagraha
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Scandals and Blame Management, Political Schattschneider, Elmer E. Schmitt, Carl Schumacher, Ernst Friedrich Schumpeter, Joseph Alois Science, Technology, and Politics Science Policy Scottish Enlightenment Secession Secularism Secular Realignment Sedition Segregation and Desegregation Select Committee Selectorate Self-determination Self-government Semi-presidential System Sentencing Policy Sexism Sex Workers and Trafficking Shadow Cabinet Sharia Shklar, Judith N. Sidgwick, Henry Sidney, Algernon Sieyès, Emmanuel-Joseph Simon, Herbert Alexander Simulation Simultaneous Equation Modeling Singer, J. David Skinner, Burrhus Frederic Slavery Small-n and Case Study Smith, Adam Social and Political Cognition Social Capital Social Choice Theory Social Conservatism Social Contract Social Darwinism Social Democracy Social Engineering Socialism Socialist Transition Socialization, Political Social Movements Social Movements, Comparative Social Order Social Policy Social Security Social Welfare Sociobiology and Politics Socrates Sophists Sorel, Georges
1511 1513 1514 1515 1515 1516 1520 1522 1524 1525 1526 1528 1528 1530 1530 1530 1530 1531 1531 1533 1533 1534 1534 1535 1536 1537 1537 1538 1539 1539 1540 1541 1541 1542 1543 1543 1544 1546 1547 1548 1549 1550 1554 1554 1558 1559 1562 1565 1566 1567 1568 1571 1573 1574 1574 1575
Alphabetical Table of Contents xix Sources of Law South (Third World) Sovereignty Soviet Union, Former Spatial Analysis Spengler, Oswald Spin Spinoza, Baruch Split Ticket Voting Spoils System Stages Model of Policy Process Stalinism Standing Committee State, Fiscal Crisis of the State, Functions of the State, Rights of the State, The State, Theories of the State,Varieties of the State Capacity State Capitalism State Church State Compliance with International Law Statecraft State Failure State Formation State Formation, European Stateless Nation State of Nature State of the Union State Repression States, Size of States’ Rights Statistical Analysis Stokes, Donald Stolper-Samuelson Theorem Strategic Interest Strategic Voting Strategy, Military Strauss, Leo Straussianism Structural Adjustment Program (IMF) Structural Equations Model (SEM) Structuralism Student Politics Subaltern Politics Subsidiarity Summit Diplomacy Sumner, William Graham Supreme Court Surveillance Survey Research Survey Techniques and Design Swift, Jonathan Syndicalism Systems Analysis
1576 1577 1580 1584 1586 1587 1587 1588 1588 1588 1589 1590 1591 1591 1592 1593 1594 1598 1599 1600 1602 1604 1605 1607 1608 1609 1610 1611 1612 1613 1613 1615 1616 1617 1619 1619 1620 1621 1621 1622 1623 1624 1625 1626 1627 1628 1630 1631 1632 1632 1635 1636 1637 1639 1639 1641
Systems Structure Systems Transformation Tactical Voting Talk Radio Tawney, Richard Henry Taxation Telecommunications Policy Television and Politics Teratopolitics Term Limits Terrorism, Financing of Terrorism, Political Terrorism, State-sponsored Thatcherism Theater, Political Theocracy Think Tanks Third-Party Intervention Third Sector Third Way and Social Democracy Third World Debt Thomas Aquinas Thomist, Scholastic, and Medieval Political Thought Thoreau, Henry David Threat Perception Thucydides Tiananmen Square Ticket Splitting Time-series Analysis Tocqueville, Alexis de Toleration Tolstoy, Leo Torture Totalitarianism Town Hall Meeting Trade Blocs Trade Diplomacy Tradition Tragedy of the Commons Transitional Justice Transitional Regimes Transitology Transnationalism Transnational Movements Transnational Voting Transparency Trial Courts Trotsky, Leon Trust and Credibility Trusteeship System Turnout Tyranny, Classical Tyranny of the Majority and Minority Rights U.S. Political Thought U.S. Politics and Society: African American Political Participation
1641 1642 1643 1643 1644 1645 1646 1648 1649 1650 1651 1652 1655 1656 1657 1658 1659 1660 1661 1662 1663 1664 1665 1666 1667 1668 1668 1669 1669 1669 1670 1671 1672 1673 1674 1675 1677 1678 1679 1679 1681 1683 1683 1684 1685 1686 1687 1689 1690 1690 1691 1693 1694 1697 1700
xx Alphabetical Table of Contents U.S. Politics and Society: African American Social Movements U.S. Politics and Society: Latino Political Participation U.S. Politics and Society: Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Political Identity U.S. Politics and Society: Minority Interest Groups U.S. Politics and Society: Women, Political Participation of Ummah Unamuno, Miguel de Unicameralism and Bicameralism Unitary Government United Nations United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Universal Declaration of Human Rights Universalism Universal Jurisdiction Uno Kozo Upper Chamber Urban Economic Development Urban Housing Urban Inequality and Poverty Urbanization Urban Land Use and Town Planning Urban Migration Utilitarianism Utopias and Politics Validity Veblen, Thorstein Virtue Theory Voegelin, Eric Voltaire, Francois-Marie Vote, Transferable and Nontransferable Voter Registration Drive Voting Behavior Voting Cycles and Arrow’s Paradox Voting Machines and Technology Voting Procedures Voting Rights and Suffrage War, Distraction Theory of War Crimes Warlordism War Powers Wars of Independence
1702 1703 1706 1708 1709 1710 1711 1711 1713 1714 1718 1719 1720 1721 1723 1724 1725 1726 1726 1727 1728 1730 1730 1732 1737 1737 1738 1739 1739 1740 1741 1742 1743 1744 1747 1748 1751 1751 1753 1753 1755
War Termination Washington, Booker T. Ways and Means Weapons of Mass Destruction Webb, Sidney, and Beatrice Potter Weber, Max Weighted Vote Systems Weil, Simone Welfare Rights Welfare State West, Decline of the Westminster Model Wheare, Kenneth C. Whip White, Leonard D. White Primary White Supremacy Wildavsky, Aaron William of Ockham Williams, Raymond Winner-Take-All Withering Away of the State Wittgenstein, Ludwig Wittig, Monique Wollstonecraft, Mary Womanism Women,Violence Against Women and Security Women in Islamic Nations Women Legislators Women’s Movement, Comparative Women’s Representation Women’s Rights Women’s Studies Women’s Suffrage Workers’ Rights World Bank World Trade Organization (WTO) Wright, Quincy Xenophobia Xenophon Yoshino Sakuzo Young, Iris Marion Zetkin, Clara Zionism
1756 1756 1758 1758 1760 1761 1761 1762 1763 1764 1768 1768 1769 1770 1770 1771 1771 1772 1773 1774 1774 1775 1776 1776 1777 1778 1779 1780 1781 1783 1784 1785 1786 1787 1788 1789 1790 1790 1791 1793 1794 1797 1797 1799 1799
THEMATIC TABLE OF CONTENTS
POLITICAL SCIENCE, DISCIPLINE OF Political Science, History of Political Science Associations Political Science Journals Politics
1278 1286 1287 1299
AFRICAN POLITICS AND SOCIETY African Political Economy African Political Thought African Politics and Society African Union Afro-Marxism Anglophone Africa Authoritarianism, African Francophone Africa Horn of Africa Lusophone Africa Pan-Africanism Postindependent Africa, Politics and Governance in Prebendalism
23 24 26 30 32 54 103 611 737 980 1168 1320 1338
AMERICAN POLITICS AND SOCIETY Americanization Articles of Confederation Electoral College Faith-based Initiative Great Society Jacksonian Democracy Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender U.S. Legal Questions McCarthyism New Deal North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) Pork Barrel State of the Union Town Hall Meeting U.S. Political Thought U.S. Politics and Society: Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Political Identity White Primary
46 84 480 558 693 849 958 1011 1105 1123 1313 1613 1674 1697 1706 1771
ASIAN POLITICS AND SOCIETY Asian Political Thought Asia Pacific Region Politics and Society Chinese Political Thought
86 91 217
Gandhism Glasnost Indian Ocean Region Kashmir Mandarins Oriental Despotism Panchayat Perestroika Russian Political Thought Satyagraha Soviet Union, Former Tiananmen Square
647 674 775 887 993 1157 1172 1206 1499 1511 1584 1668
COMPARATIVE POLITICS Communism, Fall of, and End of History Constitutional Systems, Comparative Convergence Theory Decolonization Economic Systems, Comparative Electoral Systems, Comparative Federalism, Comparative Institutionalism, Comparative Judicial Systems, Comparative Law, Comparative Legislative Systems, Comparative Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Movements, Comparative Mission Civilisatrice Party Systems, Comparative Political Economy, Comparative Politics, Comparative Postcommunism Regional Integration, Comparative Reparations Social Movements, Comparative Transitional Justice Transitional Regimes Transitology Women’s Movement, Comparative
286 317 333 380 466 489 571 789 871 923 943 950 1046 1194 1249 1301 1319 1438 1459 1565 1679 1681 1683 1784
CONSTITUTIONS AND CONSTITUTIONALISM Commerce Clause Constitutional Amendments Constitutional Democracy
275 310 313
xxii Thematic Table of Contents Constitutional Law Constitutional Monarchy Constitution Amending Procedures Constitutions, Unwritten Constitutions and Constitutionalism Emergency Powers Federalist Papers Manifesto Necessary and Sufficient Condition Original Intent Pronunciamiento
314 315 318 319 320 495 574 994 1094 1157 1365
CULTURE, MEDIA, AND LANGUAGE Blogs and Bloggers Cartoons, Political Censorship Cultural Relations Humor, Political Information Society Internet and Politics Journalism, Political Language and Language Policy Language and Politics Media, Political Commentary in the Media and Politics Media Bias Media Effect Motion Pictures and Politics Music, Political National Anthems Network Society News, Construction of Novel, Political Poetry and Politics Political Correctness Political Culture Politics, Literature, and Film Press/Fourth Estate Protest Music Satire, Political Talk Radio Television and Politics Theater, Political
142 197 203 367 751 781 834 857 906 907 1013 1014 1018 1020 1063 1069 1075 1099 1111 1130 1214 1239 1240 1305 1344 1374 1510 1643 1648 1657
DEMOCRACY AND DEMOCRATIZATION Anti-democratic Thought Capitalism and Democracy Civic Education Consociational Democracy Deliberative Democracy Democracy Democracy, Future of Democracy and Democratization Democracy and Development Democratic Peace Democratic Transition
60 188 231 307 385 387 391 394 398 399 406
Digital Democracy Direct Democracy Emerging Democracies Empire and Democracy Global Democratic Deficit Greek Democracy, Classical Industrial Democracy Liberal Democracy Parliamentary Democracy Participatory Democracy Polyarchy Representative Democracy Self-determination Third Way and Social Democracy Toleration
430 436 496 501 674 693 780 959 1176 1184 1311 1462 1530 1662 1670
ETHICS AND POLITICAL CORRUPTION Adverse Selection and Moral Hazard Corruption, Political Corruption and Other Political Pathologies Democracy and Corruption Ethics, Political Patronage Scandals and Blame Management, Political Spoils System
15 341 343 392 521 1199 1511 1588
EUROPEAN POLITICS AND SOCIETY Balkans Baltic States Basque Separatism British Political Thought Europe, Democracy in Europeanization European Political Thought European Politics and Society European Union (EU) French Political Thought German Political Thought Immobolisme Italian Political Thought New Europe Northern Ireland Old Europe State Formation, European West, Decline of the
113 117 123 150 527 528 531 532 536 632 668 767 843 1106 1126 1141 1610 1768
FEDERALISM AND LOCAL POLITICS Autogestion Center-periphery Relations (Federalism) Centralization, Deconcentration, and Decentralization Commonwealth Community Power Devolution Distribution of Powers (in a Federation) Divided Government Federalism and Foreign Relations Federal Mandates
107 205 207 281 290 423 444 449 573 575
Thematic Table of Contents xxiii Inner Cities Intergovernmental Relations Interstate Compacts Interstate Rendition Local Politics Mayor Megacities Municipal Government Power Sharing Regions and Regional Governments States’ Rights Subsidiarity Unitary Government Urban Economic Development Urban Housing Urban Inequality and Poverty Urbanization Urban Land Use and Town Planning Urban Migration
787 802 836 837 973 1010 1020 1068 1335 1441 1619 1630 1713 1725 1726 1726 1727 1728 1730
FOREIGN POLICY Alliances Atlantic Charter Bandwagoning Boundary Making and Boundary Disputes Brinkmanship Chauvinism Diplomacy Doctrines Extradition Extraterritoriality Foreign Aid Foreign Policy Foreign Policy Role Great Power Gunboat Diplomacy Humanitarian Intervention International Cooperation Iron Curtain Isolationism Marshall Plan Millennium Development Goals Monetary Union Monroe Doctrine Multilateralism New World Order Nobel Peace Prize Nonalignment Nonstate Actors North-South Relations Pax Americana Power Cycle Theory Power Transition Theory Public Diplomacy Refugees Sanctions and Embargoes
43 100 120 147 150 212 431 450 552 553 599 602 605 692 710 740 810 839 842 1001 1039 1055 1057 1065 1112 1114 1114 1117 1128 1201 1333 1335 1378 1433 1507
Statecraft Strategic Interest Summit Diplomacy Third World Debt
1607 1620 1631 1663
GENDER AND POLITICS Feminism Feminism, Postcolonial Feminism, Radical Feminism, Socialist Feminist Legal Theory Feminist Movement Feminist Political Theory Feminization of Poverty Gender and Globalization Gender and Politics Gender Gap Gender Issues Gender Mainstreaming Gender Quotas Glass Ceiling Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Political Participation Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Politics Misogyny Patriarchy Presidency and Women Queer Theory Sexism U.S. Politics and Society: Women, Political Participation of Womanism Women,Violence Against Women and Security Women in Islamic Nations Women Legislators Women’s Representation Women’s Rights Women’s Studies Women’s Suffrage
578 579 580 581 582 584 585 587 651 652 657 657 659 660 674 952 953 1045 1197 1342 1411 1533 1709 1778 1779 1780 1781 1783 1785 1786 1787 1788
GLOBALIZATION AND POLITICS Anti- and Alter-globalization Movements Clash of Civilizations Globalism Globalization Globalization and Development Guest Workers Human Development Index Interdependence Mass Immigration Modernization Structural Adjustment Program (IMF)
58 247 675 676 680 704 739 797 1008 1048 1624
IDEOLOGIES Agrarianism Anarchism
36 51
xxiv Thematic Table of Contents Anticlericalism Baathism Bolshevism Caesarism Chartism Christian Socialism Communism Communitarianism Conservatism Contagion of the Left Democratic Centralism Democratic Socialism Dialectical Materialism Fabianism Fascism Federalism Fidelism (Castroism) Fiscal Conservatism Guild Socialism Hamiltonianism Ideologies, Political Individualism Irredentism Kemalism Keynesianism Leninism Libertarianism Maoism Market Socialism Marxism Menshevism Multiculturalism Mutualism Nationalism National Socialism Négritude Neoconservatism Nepotism New Conservatism New Left Peronism Primitive Communism Progressivism Radicalism Republicanism Revisionism Social Conservatism Social Darwinism Social Democracy Socialism Socialist Transition Stalinism Syndicalism Thatcherism Totalitarianism Zionism
59 109 145 175 211 221 284 287 301 327 399 401 426 555 562 567 590 593 705 712 759 779 839 890 893 949 965 995 1000 1004 1021 1064 1071 1077 1087 1096 1097 1098 1104 1108 1207 1351 1363 1421 1470 1477 1547 1549 1550 1554 1558 1590 1639 1656 1673 1799
INSTITUTIONS AND CHECKS AND BALANCES Accountability Advise and Consent Censure Checks and Balances Coalition Theory Executive Privilege Executive, The Governance Impeachment Impoundment Ombudsman Term Limits Transparency
5 17 204 212 258 545 546 687 768 774 1144 1650 1686
INTEREST GROUPS AND LOBBIES Advocacy Groups Business Pressure in Politics Campaign Finance Davos Conference Farm Lobby Interest Aggregation and Articulation Interest Groups and Lobbies Labor Unions Lobbies, Professional Lobbying Patron-client Networks Political Action Committee (PAC) Pressure Groups Proletariat Public Interest Groups Third Sector
20 171 179 375 561 798 799 903 970 971 1200 1225 1346 1364 1383 1661
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Balance of Power Collapsed and Failed States Economic Interdependence Federation and Confederation G7/G8 and G20 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) Human Security International Administration International Court of Justice (ICJ) International Criminal Court (ICC) International Criminal Tribunals International Labor Organization (ILO) International Labor Standards International Law International Monetary Fund International Norms International Organization International Relations International Relations Doctrines of Power International Relations Worldviews and Frameworks International System
113 264 463 576 645 661 749 808 812 813 814 815 816 817 817 818 819 824 828 831 832
Thematic Table of Contents xxv League of Nations Mandate System Multinational Corporation (MNC) Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs) Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Organization of American States (OAS) Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) Peace Corps Relative Power South (Third World) State Compliance with International Law Systems Structure Systems Transformation Transnationalism Transnational Movements Transnational Voting Trusteeship System United Nations United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Bank World Trade Organization (WTO)
933 993 1066 1116 1149 1149 1151 1204 1447 1577 1605 1641 1642 1683 1684 1685 1690 1714 1718 1790 1790
INTERNATIONAL SECURITY AND ARMS CONTROL Arms Control Arms Race Conflict Resolution Containment Cooperative Security Détente Deterrence Domino Theory Insurgency Intelligence Failure Intelligence Services Money Laundering Mutual Assured Destruction Nuclear Club Nuclear Proliferation and Nonproliferation Preemption Reciprocity Regional Security Rogue States Third-Party Intervention Threat Perception Weapons of Mass Destruction
77 81 295 327 338 413 414 450 791 795 796 1056 1071 1133 1134 1339 1430 1440 1483 1660 1667 1758
LATIN AMERICAN POLITICS AND SOCIETY Aprismo Caciquismo/Coronelismo Caribbean Clientelism
Clientelistic Parties in Latin America Dependency Theory Drug Cartels Encuentros Latin America and Globalization Latin American Political Economy Latin American Political Thought Latin American Politics and Society Latino Politics Presidencialismo Sandinismo
254 407 451 505 912 914 915 917 922 1342 1509
LAW AND COURTS (FOR INTERNATIONAL LAW, SEE INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS)
Adjudication Administrative Courts Amicus Curiae Briefs Arbitration Capital Punishment Civil Law Common Law Constitutional Courts Due Process Equal Protection Executive Pardon Habeas Corpus Judicial Activism Judicial Behavior Judicial Independence Judicial Philosophy and Decision-Making Judicial Restraint Judicial Review Judicial Selection and Nomination Judicial Supremacy Judiciary Jurisprudence and Legal Theory Law and Society Legal Profession Legal Realism Military Courts Political Law Political Prisoners Precedent Rule of Law Sources of Law Supreme Court Trial Courts Universal Jurisdiction
10 11 48 73 189 237 280 312 455 518 545 711 859 861 862 863 865 867 868 869 872 876 927 935 937 1034 1253 1271 1339 1493 1576 1632 1687 1721
LEGISLATIVE STUDIES 68 174 193 253
Appropriation Caucus Cloture Congress, Contempt of Delegated Legislation
67 201 257 298 381
xxvi Thematic Table of Contents Deliberation Dissolution European Parliament Filibuster Gatekeeping General Assembly, United Nations (UN) Incumbency Legislative Drafting Legislative Hearings Legislative Systems Legislature-court Relations Lower Chamber Ombudsman, Parliamentary Parliamentary Discipline Parliamentary Government Parliamentary Immunity Parliamentary Privilege Parliamentary Rhetoric Petition Position Taking Question Time Recall Redistricting Rules of Order Select Committee Standing Committee Unicameralism and Bicameralism Upper Chamber Ways and Means Westminster Model Whip
383 444 530 592 650 661 775 938 938 939 945 978 1145 1177 1179 1181 1181 1182 1208 1314 1413 1429 1430 1497 1530 1591 1711 1724 1758 1768 1770
MIDDLE EASTERN POLITICS AND SOCIETY Arab-Israeli Relations Arab League Arab Political Economy Arab Political Thought Arab Socialism Gulf States Maghreb Mashriq Middle East Democratization Middle Eastern Politics and Society Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) Palestine Pan-Arabism and Pan-Islamism Sharia Ummah
68 69 70 71 72 706 990 1008 1027 1028 1150 1167 1169 1534 1710
NATION AND STATE Administrative State Autocracy City-republic Consent of the Governed Divine Right of Kings Dual Citizenship and Dual Nationality
14 106 230 300 449 452
Economic Theories of the State Interregnum Meritocracy Minimal State Monarchy Nation Nationality Nationalization Nation-Building Nation-State Oligarchy Police State Raison d’État Regime Republic Sovereignty State, Fiscal Crisis of the State, Functions of the State, Rights of the State, The State, Theories of the State,Varieties of the State Capacity State Failure State Formation Stateless Nation States, Size of Welfare State
468 835 1024 1043 1052 1074 1083 1084 1088 1089 1141 1217 1421 1434 1469 1580 1591 1592 1593 1594 1598 1599 1600 1608 1609 1611 1615 1764
POLITICAL BEHAVIOR Advocacy Coalition Networks Boycott Citizen Knowledge Coalition Formation Collective Action, Theory of Cue Taking Leadership Negotiations and Bargaining Political Agents Political Attitudes and Behavior Political Network Analysis Political Participation Principal-agent Theory Prisoner’s Dilemma Prospect Theory Student Politics
18 150 225 257 265 365 931 1095 1226 1230 1257 1260 1352 1354 1370 1627
POLITICAL CHANGE Assassinations, Political Autogolpe Civil Disobedience Civil Wars Collective Action and Mobilization Coup d’État Critical Juncture Critical Realignment Theory Labor Strikes
95 107 236 246 266 350 355 357 903
Thematic Table of Contents xxvii Nonviolence Political Change Postcommunist Transformation Protests and Demonstrations Regime Change Revolutions, Comparative Secession
1119 1232 1319 1375 1437 1477 1524
POLITICAL COMMUNICATION Advertising, Political Campaign Advertising Communication, Two-step Flow of Crisis Rhetoric Debates, Political Framing and Public Opinion Jeremiad Political Communication Political Discourse Propaganda Rhetoric Spin
16 177 284 353 375 611 853 1235 1243 1365 1478 1587
POLITICAL CONCEPTS Alienation, Political Allegiance Anarchy Authority Autonomy Charisma Civic Humanism Civil Society Community Consensus Cosmopolitanism Covenant Deontology Distributive Justice Equality and Inequality Essentialism Fairness False Consciousness Freedom General Will Geopolitics Group Cohesion Groupthink Judgment, Political Justice and Injustice Legitimacy Natural Law Political Obligation Power Prerogative Priming Progress Public Good Public-private Dichotomy
38 41 52 104 107 211 233 242 288 299 347 351 407 446 515 521 557 558 616 663 666 700 703 858 881 946 1092 1259 1330 1341 1351 1361 1381 1393
Relativism Republicanism, Classical Responsibility Social Contract State of Nature Teratopolitics Tradition Tragedy of the Commons Trust and Credibility Tyranny, Classical Universalism Withering Away of the State
1448 1472 1475 1548 1612 1649 1678 1679 1690 1693 1720 1775
POLITICAL ECONOMY Autarky Business Cycles, Political Business Preference Formation Centrally Planned Economy Class and Politics Class Consciousness, Envy, and Conflict Common Goods Consumer Society Corporation Democracies, Advanced Industrial Dependence Development, Economic Development, Political Economy of Development Administration Dirigisme Economic Development, State-led Foreign Direct Investment Free Trade Heckscher-Ohlin Theorem International Political Economy Laissez-faire Macroeconomics Mercantilism Microeconomics New Institutionalism Newly Industrializing Countries (NIC) Nontariff Barriers to Trade Numeraire and Dollarization Political Economy Postindustrial Society Protectionism and Tariffs Rent-seeking State Capitalism Stolper-Samuelson Theorem Trade Blocs Trade Diplomacy
103 169 170 208 248 252 276 326 340 386 407 416 420 421 438 461 601 630 718 823 905 989 1022 1027 1107 1109 1118 1135 1245 1325 1371 1458 1604 1619 1675 1677
POLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS AND PARTIES Bloc Campaigns Candidate Recruitment Candidate Selection
140 181 185 187
xxviii Thematic Table of Contents Christian Democratic Parties Confessional Parties Conservative Parties Dealignment Democratic Theory, Parties in Emerging Democracies, Political Parties in Ethnic Parties Faction Fascist Parties Feminist Parties Freezing of Party Alternatives Fringe Parties Green Parties Left Liberal Parties Machine Politics Marxist Parties Nationalist Parties New Right One-party Systems Opposition Politics Organization Theory Party and Social Structure Party Discipline Party Finance Party Identification Party Law Party Membership Party Organization Political Parties Programmatic Party Realignment, Partisan Religious Right Right Secular Realignment Selectorate
220 294 305 375 404 498 525 556 566 584 631 639 698 935 961 987 1007 1082 1110 1146 1147 1152 1185 1186 1187 1189 1190 1191 1192 1263 1360 1427 1457 1479 1526 1530
POLITICAL PSYCHOLOGY Cognitive Theory and Politics Elite Decision Making Elites, Political Emotions in Politics Group Relations Human Nature and Politics Judgment and Decision Making Mass Political Behavior Neuroscience and Politics Political Psychology Proportionality Public Opinion Social and Political Cognition Socialization, Political
259 491 492 499 701 743 859 1010 1101 1272 1368 1384 1543 1559
POLITICAL THEORY Cambridge School Communalism
176 283
Consequentialism Constructivism Contractarianism Counter-Enlightenment Political Thought Critical Theory Decisionism Decision Theory, Foundations of Democratic Theory Empiricism Enlightenment Political Thought Formal Political Theory Frankfurt School Functionalism Game Theory Greek Political Thought, Ancient Group Theory Historical Interpretation Historicism Idealism International Relations Theory Liberal Theory Liberalism, Classical Normative Theory Obligation, Theories of Political Anthropology Political Geography Political Philosophy Political Sociology Political Theory Political Thought, Foundations of Positive Theory Postcolonial Theory Postmodernism Pragmatism Rational Choice Theory Realism and Neorealism Roman Political Thought Scottish Enlightenment Social Choice Theory Sophists Straussianism Structuralism Systems Analysis Thomist, Scholastic, and Medieval Political Thought Utilitarianism Utopias and Politics Virtue Theory
301 323 332 348 358 377 378 403 502 508 606 614 641 646 695 702 726 727 755 829 962 960 1120 1137 1227 1250 1268 1288 1293 1296 1315 1317 1325 1336 1423 1428 1487 1522 1546 1574 1623 1626 1641 1665 1730 1732 1738
POLITICS AND SOCIETY Abortion and Politics Affirmative Action Assimilation Civic Engagement Commune Contentious Politics Culture Wars
1 21 96 233 283 328 370
Thematic Table of Contents xxix Elite Theory Euthanasia Family Values Individual and Society Intersectionality Lustration Oligarchy, Iron Law of Positive Discrimination Reverse Discrimination Social Capital Social Engineering Social Movements Social Order Subaltern Politics
494 540 559 778 835 981 1142 1314 1476 1544 1554 1562 1566 1628
POLITICS OF OPPRESSION Absolutism Anti-Semitism Apartheid Armenian Genocide Banana Republic Caste System Collectivization Colonialism Cult of Personality Dhimmi Dictatorship of the Proletariat Discrimination Disinformation Endangered Cultures Ethnic Cleansing Feudalism Genocide Gleichshaltung Hate Speech Hegemony Holocaust Homophobia Imperialism Internal Colonialism Jacobinism Organized Crime and Mafia Paternalism Predatory Government Sedition Sex Workers and Trafficking Slavery State Repression Torture White Supremacy Xenophobia
3 62 65 75 120 199 270 271 365 425 429 441 444 506 524 589 665 674 714 720 731 734 768 807 850 1156 1196 1339 1528 1533 1541 1613 1672 1771 1793
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION Administrative Law Attorney General Budgeting
13 101 156
Bureaucracy Bureaucratic Authoritarianism Cabinets and Cabinet Formation Central Bank Chancellor Civil Service Cohabitation Conseil d’État Deregulation Dual Executive Executive Immunity Executive Order Good Governance Governor Inspector General Knowledge Management National Archives Open Government Performance Management Police Powers Prime Minister (Head of Government) Privatization Public Domain Public Enterprises Public Utilities Quangos Regulation and Rulemaking Rulemaking Self-government Semi-presidential System Shadow Cabinet
162 166 173 206 210 241 261 299 409 453 544 545 683 691 789 896 1076 1147 1206 1216 1350 1358 1379 1379 1394 1405 1443 1491 1530 1531 1534
PUBLIC POLICY Agenda Control Agenda Setting AIDS, Politics of Antitrust Policy Climate Change Conferences, United Nations Crime Policy Cultural Policy Disaster Relief Drug Policy Economic Policy Formulation Education Policy Education Policy, Higher Environmental Policy Fiscal Policy Food Policy Garbage Can Model of the Policy Process Governability Health Care Policy Homelessness Immigration Policy Incrementalism Labor Policy Mining Policy
33 34 37 63 255 352 365 440 451 464 471 472 509 594 596 648 686 716 733 766 774 901 1044
xxx Thematic Table of Contents Monetary Policy National Security Policy Oversight Policy Analysis Policy-centered Entrepreneurship Policy Evaluation Policy Innovation Policy Meta-analysis Policy Networks and Communications Policy Theory Political Party Platform Poverty Price and Wage Controls Program Evaluation and Auditing Public Policy Public Policy Development Punctuated Equilibrium Quality of Life Science Policy Sentencing Policy Social Policy Social Security Social Welfare Stages Model of Policy Process Taxation Telecommunications Policy Think Tanks
1053 1086 1162 1218 1219 1220 1221 1222 1222 1224 1267 1327 1347 1359 1386 1390 1396 1405 1520 1531 1567 1568 1571 1589 1645 1646 1659
QUALITATIVE/QUANTITATIVE METHODS Analytic Narrative Bayesian Analysis Behavioral Game Theory Case Studies Causal Inference Causation and Correlation Computational Modeling Concept Analysis Content Analysis Correlation Cost-benefit Analysis Counterfactual Discourse Analysis Duration Model Ecological Fallacy Elite Interview Equilibrium and Chaos Error Correction Model Event History and Duration Modeling Experimental Design Field Experiment Forecasting, Political Heuristics Hierarchical Modeling Historical Method, Comparative Inference
48 126 129 198 202 202 291 293 328 341 348 350 441 457 460 492 519 520 544 551 591 598 723 723 726 781
Interview Techniques Linear Model Logistic Regression Measurement Theory Minimal Effects Model Mixed Method Multilevel Analysis Multiple Streams Theory Panel Studies Parametric Statistical Model Partial Least Squares Participant Observation Path Dependencies Political Risk Assessment Power Indices Process Tracing Q-methodology Qualitative Analysis Qualitative Methodologies Quantitative Analysis Quasi-experiment Questionnaire Regression with Categorical Data Reliability Reliability and Validity Assessment Resampling Methods Research Design Roll-call Analysis Simulation Simultaneous Equation Modeling Small-n and Case Study Spatial Analysis Statistical Analysis Structural Equations Model (SEM) Survey Research Survey Techniques and Design Time-series Analysis Validity
837 968 978 1013 1042 1047 1066 1067 1172 1175 1183 1184 1196 1276 1334 1359 1400 1400 1401 1406 1410 1412 1443 1448 1448 1473 1473 1484 1539 1539 1542 1586 1617 1625 1636 1637 1669 1737
RACE, ETHNICITY, AND POLITICS Asian American Identity and Groups Critical Race Theory Deracialization Diasporas Ethnocentrism Identity, Politics of Immigration, Effects on Intergroup Relations Immigration, Politics of Jim Crow Latino Partisanship and Ideological Orientations Mexican Immigration Migration NAACP Legal Defense and Education Fund Panethnicity Race and Gender Race and Racism
85 356 409 427 526 756 763 764 856 921 1025 1032 1073 1173 1415 1416
Thematic Table of Contents xxxi Racial Discrimination Segregation and Desegregation U.S. Politics and Society: African American Political Participation U.S. Politics and Society: African American Social Movements U.S. Politics and Society: Latino Political Participation U.S. Politics and Society: Minority Interest Groups
1420 1528 1700 1702 1703 1708
RELIGION AND POLITICS Buddhist Political Thought Church and State Civil Religion Clericalism Concordat Confucian Political Thought Evangelicalism Fundamentalism Hindu Political Thought Investiture Islamic Political Thought Jewish Political Thought Laicite Liberation Theology Orthodoxy in Political Thought Papacy Pentecostalism Political Theology Protestant Political Thought Puritanism Reformation Political Thought Religion and Politics Religious Minorities Religious Parties Religious Persecution Roman Catholic Social Thought Secularism State Church Theocracy
154 222 239 253 293 296 542 642 725 838 840 853 904 964 1159 1174 1204 1292 1372 1396 1431 1450 1453 1455 1456 1485 1525 1604 1658
REPRESENTATION AND ELECTORAL SYSTEMS Absentee Voting Additional Member System Alternate Delegate Apparentement Approval Voting At-Large Election Australian Ballot Ballot Design Binomial Electoral System Block Vote By(e)-election Compulsory Voting Constituency Constituency Relations
3 10 45 66 67 100 102 115 136 141 172 291 309 309
Consultants, Political Convenience Voting Cube Law Cumulative Voting Delegation, Theories of Descriptive Representation D’Hondt Method Disenfranchisement Districting District Magnitude Droop Quota Duverger’s Law Election Commission Election Monitoring Electoral Administration Electoral Cycles Electoral Formulas Electoral Geography Electoral Quotas Electoral Reform Electoral Rules Electoral Systems Electronic Voting Empowerment Estates Exit Poll First Past the Post Floating Voter Fractionalization Index Functional Representation Gerrymandering Impossibility Theorem Indirect Elections Initiative and Referendum Limited Vote Majority-minority District Mandate Theory Marginal District Minority Representation Mobilization, Political Negative Campaigning Pillarization Plebiscite Pluralism Polling, History of Preferential Voting Primaries Proportional Representation Psephology Qualified Majority Voting Quotas Representation and Representative Representative Systems Reserved Seat Roll Off Rotten Boroughs
325 332 364 371 382 412 426 443 447 448 451 458 476 478 479 480 482 482 484 484 485 488 490 504 521 551 593 595 610 642 672 772 777 786 967 992 994 998 1044 1047 1094 1209 1211 1213 1308 1340 1348 1369 1377 1400 1413 1460 1465 1475 1485 1489
xxxii Thematic Table of Contents Run-off Sacrificial Lamb Candidacy Split Ticket Voting Strategic Voting Tactical Voting Ticket Splitting Turnout Vote, Transferable and Nontransferable Voter Registration Drive Voting Behavior Voting Cycles and Arrow’s Paradox Voting Machines and Technology Voting Procedures Weighted Vote Systems Winner-Take-All
1498 1505 1588 1621 1643 1669 1691 1740 1741 1742 1743 1744 1747 1761 1774
RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS Academic Freedom Animal Rights Asylum Rights Bill of Rights Children’s Rights Citizenship Civil and Political Rights Civil Rights Movement Copyright Cultural Rights Disability Rights Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights Entitlements Freedom of Assembly Freedom of Association Freedom of Conscience Freedom of Information Freedom of Movement Freedom of Religion Freedom of Speech Freedom of the Press Freedom to Bear Arms Human Rights Intellectual Property Rights International Bill of Rights Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Rights Magna Carta Naturalization Natural Rights Privacy Privacy Rights Property Rights Reproductive Rights Right to Die Right to Life Tyranny of the Majority and Minority Rights Universal Declaration of Human Rights Voting Rights and Suffrage Welfare Rights Workers’ Rights
4 56 98 135 216 226 235 240 339 369 439 460 509 618 620 621 622 623 625 626 628 629 745 794 809 957 991 1090 1093 1355 1357 1367 1469 1479 1481 1694 1719 1748 1763 1789
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND POLITICS Bioethics and Politics Biology and Political Science Cryptography Cybersecurity Ecological Analysis E-governance, E-voting, E-democracy, E-politics Environmental Political Theory Information Technology and Politics Kyoto Protocol Political Ecology Science, Technology, and Politics Sociobiology and Politics
137 138 364 372 459 473 512 783 898 1244 1516 1573
WAR, PEACE, AND TERRORISM Appeasement Asymmetric Wars Casus Belli Civil-military Relations Cold War Colonial Wars Cyberterrorism Eco-terrorism Geneva Conventions Homeland Security Insurrection and Insurgency Jihad Just War Theory Legitimate Violence Martial Law Military-industrial Complex Military Rule Militias Neutrality Noncombatant Prisoners North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Occupation and Annexation Pacifism and Conscientious Objection Peace Post-9/11 Politics Prisoners of War (POWs) Strategy, Military Surveillance Terrorism, Financing of Terrorism, Political Terrorism, State-sponsored War, Distraction Theory of War Crimes Warlordism War Powers Wars of Independence War Termination
66 99 201 238 261 274 373 469 663 732 793 855 885 947 1002 1035 1036 1037 1103 1115 1124 1138 1165 1202 1316 1354 1621 1635 1651 1652 1655 1751 1751 1753 1753 1755 1756
BIOGRAPHIES Addams, Jane Adorno, Theodor W. Aflaq, Michel
9 15 22
Thematic Table of Contents xxxiii Alighieri, Dante Alker, Hayward R. Almond, Gabriel Althusius, Johannes Althusser, Louis Anthony, Susan Brownell Arendt, Hannah Aristotle Arnold, Thurman Wesley Aron, Raymond Astell, Mary Augustine of Hippo Bachrach, Peter Bagehot, Walter Bahro, Rudolf Bakunin, Mikhail Banfield, Edward C. Banks, Jeffrey S. Barker, Ernest Barrès, Maurice Bassett, Reginald Baudrillard, Jean Bauer, Otto Beard, Charles A. Beauvoir, Simone de Beccaria, Cesare Beer, Samuel Hutchison Bellarmine, Robert Bentham, Jeremy Bentley, Arthur Fisher Berelson, Bernard R. Berle, Adolf Augustus Berlin, Isaiah Bernstein, Eduard Blackstone, William Blanqui, Louis-Auguste Bloch, Ernst Bobbio, Norberto Bodin, Jean Boff, Leonardo Bonald, Louis Gabriel-Ambroise, vicomte de Bookchin, Murray Bourdieu, Pierre Bryce, James Bukharin, Nikolai Ivanovich Bull, Hedley Bunche, Ralph Johnson Burke, Edmund Burnham, James Calhoun, John Calvin, John Campbell, Albert Angus Camus, Albert Carr, E. H. Carter, Gwendolen M. Castoriadis, Cornelius Catlin, George Edward Gordon
40 40 44 45 46 57 73 75 83 83 97 101 110 111 111 112 121 121 122 123 124 125 125 126 127 128 128 130 131 132 132 133 134 134 139 140 141 143 144 144 146 147 149 154 159 160 161 167 168 175 176 184 184 196 196 200 201
Chamberlain, Houston Stewart Cicero, Marcus Tullius Cole, George Douglas Howard Comte, Auguste Condorcet, Marquis de Constant de Rebeque, Henri-Benjamin Corwin, Edward Samuel Croce, Benedetto Crosland, Charles Anthony Raven Crossman, Richard Derrida, Jacques Deutsch, Karl W. Dewey, John Dexter, Lewis Anthony Dicey, Albert Venn Diderot, Denis Du Bois, William Edward Burghardt Durkheim, Émile Eckstein, Harry Edelman, Murray J. Einaudi, Mario Luigi Elazar, Daniel J. Engels, Friedrich Fainsod, Merle Fanon, Frantz Al-Farabi Filmer, Sir Robert Follett, Mary Parker Ford, Henry Jones Foucault, Michel Paul Frank, Andre Gunder Freire, Paulo Freund, Ernst Friedan, Betty Fromm, Erich Furnivall, John Sydenham Garvey, Marcus M. Gellner, Ernest Gentile, Giovanni George, Alexander L. George, Henry Gilman, Charlotte Anna Perkins Godwin, William Goldman, Emma Goodnow, Frank Johnson Gosnell, Harold Foote Gramsci, Antonio Grotius, Hugo Gulick, Luther Halsey, III Hamilton, Alexander Harrington, James Hartz, Louis Hayek, Freidrich August von Heckscher, Gunnar Hegedus, Andras Hegel, Georg W. F. Heidegger, Martin
209 224 263 292 293 308 346 361 362 363 411 415 424 425 428 429 454 457 459 470 475 475 507 556 559 560 592 595 597 609 613 632 637 638 640 644 649 650 666 667 668 673 681 682 684 685 691 699 709 712 713 714 716 718 719 719 721
xxxiv Thematic Table of Contents Herzen, Alexander I. Hilferding, Rudolf Hobbes, Thomas Hobhouse, Leonard Trelawney Hobson, John Atkinson Holcombe, Arthur N. Hook, Sidney Hooker, Richard Horkheimer, Max Horvat, Branko Hume, David Huntington, Samuel P. Hyneman, Charles S. Ibn Taymiyya Illich, Ivan Jabotinsky,Vladimir Jacobson, Harold K. James, Cyril Lionel Robert James, William Jennings, Ivor Kant, Immanuel Kautilya Kautsky, Karl Johann Kelsen, Hans Key,V. O., Jr. Keynes, John Maynard Kirchheimer, Otto Kita Ikki Kohr, Leopold Kollontay, Aleksandra Mikhaylovna Kropotkin, Peter Kuhn, Thomas Laski, Harold Joseph Lasswell, Harold Dwight Lazarsfeld, Paul F. Le Bon, Gustave Lenin,Vladimir Ilich Lerner, Max Liang Qichao Li Dazhao Lieber, Francis Lincoln, Abraham Lipset, Seymour Martin Lipsius, Justus Locke, John Lowell, A. Lawrence Lukács, Gyorgy Luther, Martin Luxemburg, Rosa Lu Xun Lyotard, Jean-François Machiavelli, Niccolò Macpherson, Crawford Brough Madison, James Maistre, Joseph Marie de Malatesta, Errico
722 724 728 729 730 731 735 736 736 739 751 753 754 755 762 849 851 851 852 853 887 889 889 890 892 892 894 895 896 896 897 898 910 911 931 935 948 950 958 966 966 967 969 969 977 978 979 982 983 984 984 987 989 990 991 992
Mannheim, Karl Marcuse, Herbert Mariátegui, José Carlos Maritain, Jacques Marsilius of Padua Marx, Karl McKelvey, Richard Merleau-Ponty, Maurice Merriam, Charles E. Michels, Robert Miliband, Ralph Mill, James Mill, John Stuart Miller, Warren Mills, C. Wright Milton, John Montaigne, Michel de Montesquieu, Charles-Louis Moore, Barrington, Jr. More, Sir Thomas Morgenthau, Hans Joachim Morris, William Mosca, Gaetano Neumann, Franz Neustadt, Richard E. Niebuhr, Reinhold Nietzsche, Friedrich Nove, Alec Nozick, Robert Oakeshott, Michael Joseph Ogg, Frederick Austin Okin, Susan Moller Olson, Mancur Ortega y Gasset, José Orwell, George Otsuka Hisao Owen, Robert Paine, Thomas Pareto,Vilfredo Parsons, Talcott Peuchet, Jacques Plato Plekhanov, Grigorgii Valentinovich Polanyi, Karl Polsby, Nelson Polybius Pool, Ithiel de Sola Popper, Karl Raimund Poulantzas, Nicos Prebisch, Raúl Priestley, Joseph Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph Ptolemy of Lucca Pufendorf, Samuel Pye, Lucien Rand, Ayn
995 997 998 999 1001 1003 1012 1024 1025 1026 1033 1038 1039 1040 1041 1042 1058 1058 1059 1060 1061 1061 1062 1100 1102 1113 1113 1130 1132 1137 1140 1140 1143 1159 1161 1162 1164 1166 1175 1183 1209 1210 1212 1215 1310 1311 1312 1313 1327 1338 1348 1376 1377 1395 1397 1422
Thematic Table of Contents xxxv Rawls, John Reich, Wilhelm Renner, Karl Ricardo, David Riker, William Rokkan, Stein Rorty, Richard Rothbard, Murray N. Rousseau, Jean-Jacques Roy, Manabendra Nath Russell, Bertrand Sabine, George Holland Said, Edward Saint-Simon, Claude-Henri Sartre, Jean-Paul Schattschneider, Elmer E. Schmitt, Carl Schumacher, Ernst Friedrich Schumpeter, Joseph Alois Shklar, Judith N. Sidgwick, Henry Sidney, Algernon Sieyès, Emmanuel-Joseph Simon, Herbert Alexander Singer, J. David Skinner, Burrhus Frederic Smith, Adam Socrates Sorel, Georges Spengler, Oswald Spinoza, Baruch Stokes, Donald
1426 1446 1458 1478 1482 1484 1488 1489 1490 1491 1499 1505 1506 1506 1509 1513 1514 1515 1515 1535 1536 1537 1537 1538 1540 1541 1543 1574 1575 1587 1588 1619
Strauss, Leo Sumner, William Graham Swift, Jonathan Tawney, Richard Henry Thomas Aquinas Thoreau, Henry David Thucydides Tocqueville, Alexis de Tolstoy, Leo Trotsky, Leon Unamuno, Miguel de Uno Kozo Veblen, Thorstein Voegelin, Eric Voltaire, Francois-Marie Washington, Booker T. Webb, Sidney and Beatrice Potter Weber, Max Weil, Simone Wheare, Kenneth C. White, Leonard D. Wildavsky, Aaron William of Ockham Williams, Raymond Wittgenstein, Ludwig Wittig, Monique Wollstonecraft, Mary Wright, Quincy Xenophon Yoshino Sakuzo Young, Iris Marion Zetkin, Clara
1622 1632 1639 1644 1664 1666 1668 1669 1671 1689 1711 1723 1737 1739 1739 1756 1760 1761 1762 1769 1770 1772 1773 1774 1776 1776 1777 1791 1794 1797 1797 1799
ABOUT THE EDITORS
EDITOR IN CHIEF George Thomas Kurian is founder and president of the Encyclopedia Society. Born in India, he emigrated to the United States in 1968. Over the past twenty years, he has produced more than twenty-three encyclopedias and thirty-one other reference books, including atlases, dictionaries, almanacs, annuals, chronologies, desk references, and anthologies.
ASSOCIATE EDITORS James E. Alt is Frank G. Thomson Professor of Government at Harvard University. He is author, coauthor, or coeditor of The Politics of Economic Decline (Cambridge University Press, 1979), Political Economics (University of California Press, 1983), Perspectives on Positive Political Economy (Cambridge University Press, 1990), Competition and Cooperation (Russell Sage, 1999), and Positive Changes in Political Science (University of Michigan Press, 2007). He also has published numerous articles in scholarly journals. He is the founding director of Harvard’s Center for Basic Research in the Social Sciences (now the Institute for Quantitative Social Science). He is or has been a member of the editorial boards of the American Journal of Political Science, British Journal of Political Science, Political Studies, American Political Science Review, and other journals and is a former member of the Political Science panel of the National Science Foundation. He was a Guggenheim fellow (1997–1998) and is a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Simone Chambers is a professor in the Department of Political Science at the University of Toronto. She is author of Reasonable Democracy: Jurgen Habermas and the Politics of Discourse (Cornell University Press, 1996) and the coeditor of Deliberation, Democracy, and the Media (Rowman and Littlefield, 2000) and Alternative Conceptions of Civil Society (Princeton University Press, 2001). Chambers has published articles on deliberative democracy, the Frankfurt School, constitutional theory, civil society, rhetoric and the public sphere in such journals as Political Theory, Journal of Political Philosophy, Constellations, and Perspectives on Politics. She teaches the history of political thought, critical theory, democratic theory, continental thought, and public law. Geoffrey Garrett is founding CEO of the United States Studies Centre and professor of political science at the University of Sydney. He was previously president of the Pacific Council on International Policy in Los Angeles and before
that dean of the International Institute at the University of California, Los Angeles. He has served on the faculties of Oxford, Stanford, and Yale universities and the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania. Garrett is author of Partisan Politics in the Global Economy and editor of The Global Diffusion of Markets and Democracy, both published by Cambridge University Press, and he has published more than fifty articles in the world’s leading social science journals on the politics of globalization and European integration. Margaret Levi is Jere L. Bacharach Professor of Inter national Studies, Department of Political Science, University of Washington, Seattle and, jointly, chair in politics, United States Studies Centre at the University of Sydney. She is director of the CHAOS (Comparative Historical Analysis of Organizations and States) Center and formerly the Harry Bridges Chair and Director of the Harry Bridges Center for Labor Studies. She served as president of the American Political Science Association (2004–2005) and was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2001. She was a Guggenheim fellow (2002–2003) and a Phi Beta Kappa Visiting Scholar (2006–2007). Levi’s many publications include Consent, Dissent, and Patriotism (1997), Of Rule and Revenue (1988), and the multi-authored Analytic Narratives (1998) and Cooperation Without Trust (2005). In 1997 she became the co–general editor of the Trust series for Russell Sage Foundation Press, in 1999 the general editor of Cambridge Studies in Comparative Politics, and in 2006 the general editor of the Annual Review of Political Science. Paula D. McClain is professor of political science, public policy, and African American studies at Duke University. She is codirector of the Center for the Study of Race, Ethnicity and Gender in the Social Sciences at Duke. She directs the American Political Science Association’s Ralph Bunche Summer Institute hosted by Duke University and funded by the National Science Foundation and Duke University. Her primary research interests are in racial minority group politics, particularly interminority political and social competition, and urban politics, especially public policy and urban crime. Her articles have appeared in numerous journals, most recently the Journal of Politics, American Political Science Review, Urban Affairs Review, and the Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race.
xxxviii About the Editors CONTENT EDITORS Micah Altman is senior research scientist in the Institute for Quantitative Social Science in the Faculty of Arts and Sciences at Harvard University, archival director of the Henry A. Murray Research Archive, and nonresident senior fellow at the Brookings Institution. Kevin G. Barnhurst is a professor in the Department of Communication at the University of Illinois at Chicago and chair of the Political Communication Division of the International Communication Association. Janet M. Box-Steffensmeier is the Vernal Riffe Professor of Political Science, courtesy professor of sociology, and director of the program in statistical methodology at Ohio State University. Susan Burgess is professor of political science and women’s and gender studies at Ohio University. Ladislav Cabada is the Jean Monnet Chair and Associate Professor in the Department for Politics and International Relations and also is on the faculty of philosophy and arts at the University of West Bohemia in Pilsen, Czech Republic. Tihomir Cipek is professor of political science at the University of Zagreb in Croatia and former president of the Croatian Political Science Association. Louis DeSipio is associate professor of political science and chair of Chicano/Latino studies at the University of California, Irvine. Joyce Gelb is professor emerita of political science at the City University of New York. Michael T. Gibbons is associate professor of political science in government and international affairs at the University of South Florida.
Andrew Murphy is associate professor of political science at Rutgers University, New Brunswick. J. Mitchell Pickerill is coeditor of “The State of American Federalism” annual issue of Publius: The Journal of Federalism and an associate professor in the Department of Political Science at Washington State University. Peter Rutland is the Colin and Nancy Campbell Professor in Global Issues and Democratic Thought, professor of government, and professor of Russian and Eastern European studies at Wesleyan University in Middletown, Connecticut. Reeta Tremblay is vice president (academic) pro tempore at Memorial University of Newfoundland and president-elect of the Canadian Political Science Association. Beginning January 1, 2011, she will be vice president (academic) and provost at the University of Victoria. Gul Gunver Turan is professor of economics (retired) in the faculty of economics at Istanbul University. Ilter Turan is a professor of political science in the Department of International Relations at Istanbul Bilgi University in Turkey. James J. Wirtz is dean of the School of International Graduate Studies, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, California. Joseph F. Zimmerman is professor of political science in the Rockefeller College of the State University of New York at Albany.
BOARD OF EDITORIAL CONSULTANTS AND ADVISERS
Michael Gilligan is associate professor of politics at New York University.
Lisa Anderson School of International and Public Affairs, Columbia University
Michael Goodhart is associate professor of political science and women’s studies at the University of Pittsburgh.
Judith Baer Texas A&M University
Sean Q. Kelly is professor of political science at California State University, Channel Islands in Camarillo, California.
Karen Beckwith Case Western Reserve University
Joseph L. Klesner is professor of political science and associate provost at Kenyon College. George Klosko is the Henry L. and Grace Doherty Professor in the Department of Politics at the University of Virginia. Rose McDermott is professor of political science at Brown University and a fellow at the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study at Harvard University.
Lance Bennett University of Washington Richard Bensel Cornell University Adam Berinsky Massachusetts Institute of Technology Kenneth Bickers University of Colorado at Boulder
About the Editors xxxix Catherine Boone University of Texas at Austin
Jeffrey Herbst Colgate University
Henry E. Brady Goldman School of Public Policy, University of California, Berkeley
Jennifer Hochschild Harvard University
Lawrence Broz University of California, San Diego Cornell Clayton Washington State University
Michael Howlett Simon Fraser University John Ishiyama University of North Texas
Joseph Cooper Johns Hopkins University
Shanto Iyengar Stanford University
Neta C. Crawford Boston University
Simon Jackman Stanford University
Martha Crenshaw Center for International Security and Cooperation, Stanford University
Stathis N. Kalyvas Yale University
Christian Davenport Kroc Institute for International Peace Studies, University of Notre Dame Henry A. Dietz University of Texas at Austin Peter Eisinger The New School for Management and Urban Policy Barbara Farnham Institute of War and Peace Studies, Columbia University H. George Frederickson University of Kansas John Freeman University of Minnesota William A. Galston University of Maryland Shirley Geigers Savannah State University Kim Geron California State University East Bay James L. Gibson Washington University in St. Louis Benjamin Ginsberg Center for the Study of American Government, Johns Hopkins University John C. Green Bliss Institute of Applied Politics, University of Akron Paul Gronke Reed College Fen Osler Hampson Norman Paterson School of International Affairs, Carleton University
Richard S. Katz Johns Hopkins University William R. Keech Duke University Anthony King University of Exeter Jack Knight Duke University Paul A. Kowert Rutgers,The State University of New Jersey Yves Laberge Institut québécois des hautes études internationales Jack S. Levy Rutgers,The State University of New Jersey Mark Irving Lichbach University of Maryland Baodong Liu University of Utah Burdett A. Loomis University of Kansas Stephen Macedo Princeton University Cathie Jo Martin Boston University Gregory E. McAvoy University of North Carolina at Greensboro Joseph P. McCormick II Penn State–York Campus Wayne McIntosh University of Maryland
xl About the Editors Graham T. T. Molitor Public Policy Forecasting
David Vogel University of California, Berkeley, Haas School of Business
Andrew Moravcsik Princeton University
Barbara F. Walter Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies, University of California, San Diego
Elinor Ostrom Indiana University–Bloomington Paul Quirk University of British Columbia David Brian Robertson University of Missouri–St. Louis Allan Rosenbaum Florida International University Marc Howard Ross Bryn Mawr College Bo Rothstein Göteborg University
Graham Wilson Boston University
INTERNATIONAL BOARD OF EDITORIAL ADVISERS Luc Sindjoun African Association of Political Science Rainer Baubock Austrian Political Science Association Andre Blais Canadian Political Science Association
M. Elizabeth Sanders Cornell University
Yun-han chu Chinese Association of Political Science
Joanna Vecchiarelli Scott Eastern Michigan University
Tihomir Cipek Croatian Political Science Association
Kathryn Sikkink University of Minnesota
Ladislav Cabada Czech Political Science Association
Jack Snyder Institute of War and Peace Studies, Columbia University
Peter Kurrild-Klitgaard Danish Political Science Association
Manfred B. Steger Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology
Ken Newton European Consortium for Political Research (ECPR)
Sidney Tarrow Cornell University
Niilo Kauppi Finnish Political Science Association
Charles Tilly Columbia University
Gideon Doron Israel Political Science Association
Aili Mari Tripp University of Wisconsin–Madison
Lars Svasand Norwegian Political Science Association
Joan C. Tronto University of Minnesota
Maura Adshead Political Science Association of Ireland
Ashutosh Varshney Brown University
Antonio L. Rappa Political Science Association of Singapore
Eduardo A.Velasquez Washington & Lee University
Ilter Turan Turkish Political Science Association
LIST OF AUTHORS Samer N. Abboud Arcadia University Christiana Abraham University of the West Indies, St. Augustine Campus Seth Abrutyn Institute for Research on World-Systems, University of California, Riverside Karen Ruth Adams University of Montana John Agnew University of California, Los Angeles Robert Agranoff School of Public and Environmental Affairs, Indiana University John S. Ahlquist Florida State University Arif Akgul Turkish Monitoring Center for Drugs and Drug Addiction
Doreen K. Allerkamp School of Social Sciences, University of Mannheim
Jeeyang Rhee Baum Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University
Dennis Altman La Trobe University
Murat Bayar University of Georgia
Micah Altman Harvard University
Virginia Parish Beard Hope College
Rudy B. Andeweg Leiden University
Mary Beth Beazley Michael E. Moritz College of Law, Ohio State University
Eva Anduiza Autonomous University of Barcelona Stephen C. Angle Wesleyan University Andrew L. Aoki Augsburg College
Karen Beckwith Case Western Reserve University Sonu S. Bedi Dartmouth College Betsi Beem University of Sydney
Kai Arzheimer Johannes Gutenberg–Universität Mainz
Nasser Behnegar Boston College
Katrin Auel University of Oxford
Daniel Béland Johnson-Shoyama Graduate School of Public Policy (University of Saskatchewan campus)
Es¸ref Aksu Victoria University of Wellington
Julia Bader German Development Institute
John H. Aldrich Duke University
Kate Baldwin Columbia University
C. Fred Alford University of Maryland
Terence Ball Arizona State University
Fidelis Allen University of Port Harcourt
Jordon B. Barkalow Bridgewater State College
Farid Samir Benavides-Vanegas Campus for Peace, Universitat Oberta de Barcelona, Spain
William B. Allen Michigan State University
Robert Bates Harvard University
Andrew Bennett Georgetown University
*
David S. Bell School of Politics and International Studies, University of Leeds Paul Bellamy* New Zealand Parliamentary Library
Views expressed are those of the author and do not necessarily represent official views of the New Zealand Parliamentary Library.
xlii List of Authors Kenneth Benoit Trinity College Dublin
Erin L. Borry University of Kansas
Courtney Brown Emory University
Ramiro Berardo School of Government and Public Policy, University of Arizona Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas-Argentina
Jocelyn M. Boryczka Fairfield University
Aaron-Andrew P. Bruhl University of Houston Law Center
Tanja A. Börzel Otto Suhr Institute for Political Science Freie Universität Berlin
William I. Brustein Ohio State University
John C. Berg Suffolk University Henrik Berglund Stockholm University Kenneth A. Betsalel University of North Carolina at Asheville David J. Betz King’s College London Rajani Bhatia University of Maryland Ron J. Bigalke Jr. University of Pretoria Simon Birnbaum Stockholm University Amanda Bittner Memorial University of Newfoundland Amy E. Black Wheaton College Paul Blackledge Reader, School of Social Sciences, Leeds Metropolitan University Charles P. Blair Federation of American Scientists (FAS) Nebojsa Blanusa University of Zagreb, Croatia Charles R. Boehmer University of Texas at El Paso
Jason R. Bossie Temple University Denise M. Bostdorff College of Wooster Chiara Bottici New School for Social Research Janet Box-Steffensmeier Ohio State University Richard Boyd Georgetown University Megan Bradley Saint Paul University David A. Bray Goizueta Business School Corey Brettschneider Brown University Christian Breunig University of Toronto Mark D. Brewer University of Maine Jamal Donaldson Briggs University of North Carolina at Charlotte John Brigham University of Massachusetts, Amherst
Dovile Budryte Georgia Gwinnett College Cynthia Burack Ohio State University Susan Burgess Ohio University Walter Dean Burnham Frank C. Erwin, Jr. Centennial Chair in State Government, University of Texas Andrew Calabrese University of Colorado Karen Callaghan Texas Southern University Pamela Camerra-Rowe Kenyon College Paul Cantor University of Virginia Tereza Capelos University of Surrey, Guildford Daniele Caramani University of St. Gallen Thomas E. Carbonneau Pennsylvania State University M. Cathy Carey Western Kentucky University
Rebecca E. Bromley-Trujillo Michigan State University
Leah Carmichael University of Georgia
John R. Bokina University of Texas–Pan American
Stephen Eric Bronner Rutgers,The State University of New Jersey
Julio F. Carrión University of Delaware
Julio Borquez University of Michigan, Dearborn
Sarah M. Brooks Ohio State University
Jeffrey N. Carroll Temple University
List of Authors xliii Jamie L. Carson University of Georgia Marcio A. Carvalho Fundacao Getulio Vargas Terrell Carver University of Bristol Brian Caterino Independent Scholar Matthias Catón World Economic Forum Sezgin S. Cebi Kadir Has University Marco Cesa School of Advanced International Studies, Johns Hopkins University Benoit Challand New School for Social Research Audrey R. Chapman University of Connecticut School of Medicine Evan Charney Duke University Thomas Cieslik Tecnológico de Monterrey Nevim Çil Ministry of Justice in Hamburg Department Anti-Discrimination Unit Cultural Diversity
Josep M. Colomer Higher Council for Scientific Research (CSIC), Barcelona David B. Conklin The Chelsea School Walter D. Connor Boston University Aaron Cooley University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Jerome E. Copulsky Goucher College David Cortright University of Notre Dame Bezen Balamir Coskun Zirve University John C. Courtney Johnson-Shoyama Graduate School of Public Policy, University of Saskatchewan David Cowan St. Andrew’s University Claudiu Craciun National School of Political Studies and Public Administration, Bucharest, Romania Tobin L. Craig James Madison College, Michigan State University
Dennis Dalton Barnard College, Columbia University Jennifer E. Dalton York University David Darmofal University of South Carolina Noah Dauber Colgate University Christian Davenport University of Notre Dame Isabel David Instituto Superior de Ciências Sociais e Políticas–Technical University of Lisbon Laurence Davis National University of Ireland, Maynooth Robert Dayley College of Idaho Massimo De Angelis School of Humanity and Social Sciences, University of East London Sybille Reinke de Buitrago IFSH, Universität Hamburg Rodolfo O. de la Garza Columbia University Filippo Del Lucchese Brunel University–West London
David Cingranelli Binghamton University, SUNY
Martha Crenshaw Center for International Security and Cooperation (CISAC), Stanford University
Philippe De Lombaerde United Nations University–Comparative Regional Integration Studies (UNU-CRIS)
David Ciuk Michigan State University
William W. Culver State University of New York at Plattsburgh
Jasper de Raadt VU University Amsterdam
Cornell W. Clayton Washington State University
Michael S. Cummings University of Colorado Denver
Jaap H. de Wilde University of Groningen
Patrick Cloos Université de Montréal
K. Amber Curtis University of Colorado
Eliot Dickinson Western Oregon University
Kevin Coe University of Arizona
Brent Cusher Rhodes College
Henry A. Dietz University of Texas at Austin
Simchi Cohen University of California, Los Angeles
Richard Dagger University of Richmond
Rekha Diwakar Goldsmiths, University of London
xliv List of Authors A.G. Dizboni Royal College of Canada
Kjell E. Engelbrekt Stockholm University
Ronald Francisco University of Kansas
Nives Dolšak University of Washington
Jacob F. English Marquette University
Mary Francoli School of Journalism and Communication, Carleton University
Jorge Dominguez Harvard University
Richard N. Engstrom Kennesaw State University
Janet L. Donavan University of Colorado
John H. Evans University of California, San Diego
Charles F. Doran Johns Hopkins School of Advanced International Studies,Washington, D.C.
Joám Evans Pim University of Santiago de Compostela
Benedikt Franke St. John’s College, University of Cambridge
Barbara Farnham Columbia University
Julian H. Franklin Columbia University
Henry Farrell George Washington University
Leonard Freedman University of California, Los Angeles
Christina Fattore West Virginia University
Siegrun Fox Freyss California State University, Los Angeles
Jörg Faust German Development Institute
Earl H. Fry Brigham Young University
Joseph Femia University of Liverpool
Timothy Fuller Colorado College
Kathy E. Ferguson University of Hawai’i
Matteo Fumagalli Central European University (Budapest)
Leela Fernandes University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
Sean Gailmard University of California, Berkeley
Rita Kiki Edozie James Madison College at Michigan State University
Marco Fey Peace Research Institute Frankfurt
John A. Garcia University of Michigan
George Ehrhardt Appalachian State University
Bonnie N. Field Bentley University
Monica Gariup Zayed University
Mette Eilstrup-Sangiovanni University of Cambridge
G. Borden Flanagan American University School of Public Affairs
Christian Garland Independent Scholar
Eldon J. Eisenach University of Tulsa
Curtis Fogel University of Guelph
Graeme Garrard Cardiff University
Rainer Eisfeld University of Osnabrueck
Carolyn Forestiere University of Maryland, Baltimore County
Bryan Garsten Yale University
Rabab El-Mahdi American University in Cairo
Carly Hayden Foster Southern Illinois University of Edwardsville
George Gavrilis University of Texas at Austin
Miriam Fendius Elman Maxwell School, Syracuse University
Russell Arben Fox Friends University
Joyce Gelb City University of New York
Donald A. Downs University of Wisconsin–Madison John Duggan University of Rochester David A. Dulio Oakland University John Duncan Trinity College, University of Toronto O. P. Dwivedi University of Guelph David M. Edelstein Edmund A.Walsh School of Foreign Service, Georgetown University
Volker K. Frank University of North Carolina at Asheville
List of Authors xlv Associate, Affiliated Faculty, Department of Political Science, University of California, Davis
Bobbi Gentry Millikin University
Sheldon Goldman University of Massachusetts, Amherst
Daniel B. German Appalachian State University
Jack A. Goldstone School of Public Policy, George Mason University
Asha Gupta University of Delhi
Michael Goodhart University of Pittsburgh
Sandy Brian Hager York University
Victoria Gordon Western Kentucky University
Michael W. Hail Morehead State University
Norbert Götz Institute of Contemporary History, Södertörn University
Leonard Hammer Independent Scholar
Ryan Gibb University of Kansas Michael T. Gibbons University of Southern Florida Tobias T. Gibson Westminster College Eytan Gilboa Bar-Ilan University Itzhak Gilboa Bar-Ilan University and University of Southern California J. Ramon Gil-Garcia Centro de Investigación y Docencia Económicas, Mexico Anthony Gill University of Washington Michael Allen Gillespie Duke University Bruce Gilley Portland State University
Mark A. Graber University of Maryland Robert Grafstein University of Georgia Jim Granato University of Houston Shannon Granville Independent Scholar Peter Gratton University of San Diego Marko Grdesic University of Wisconsin–Madison
Ryan R. Gladwin University of Edinburgh
Donald P. Green Institution for Social and Policy Studies, Yale University
Marlies Glasius Universiteit van Amsterdam
Marcus E. Green Otterbein University
Andrew Glencross University of Aberdeen
Samuel R. Greene Catholic University of America
Christian Göbel Centre for East and South-East Asian Studies, Lund University
Michael F. Gretz New School for Social Research
Mark Gobeyn Bradley University Doug Goldenberg-Hart Senior Acquisitions Editor, CQ Press Loren Goldman University of Chicago
Ramona June Grey University of Montana Vsevolod Gunitskiy Columbia University John G. Gunnell Distinguished Professor, Emeritus, State University of New York at Albany; Research
John Mark Hansen University of Chicago Wendy L. Hansen University of New Mexico Jean-Baptiste Harguindéguy Pablo de Olavide University Gardenia Harris Illinois State University Ralph Hartsock University of North Texas Libraries Colin Harvey Queen’s University Belfast Silja Häusermann University of Zurich Mary Hawkesworth Rutgers,The State University of New Jersey Reuven Y. Hazan Hebrew University of Jerusalem Andrew Heard Simon Fraser University David Hedge University of Florida Jorge Heine Balsillie School of International Affairs Rabih Helou University of Maryland Manfred Henningsen University of Hawai’i at Manoa
xlvi List of Authors James J. Hentz Virginia Military Institute
Iza Hussin University of Massachusetts, Amherst
Daniel Kapust University of Georgia
Francisco Herreros Institute for Public Goods and Policies (CSIC)
Patrick H. Hutton University of Vermont
Richard S. Katz Johns Hopkins University
Jacques E. C. Hymans University of Southern California
Michael Keaney Helsinki Metropolia University of Applied Sciences
Michael C. Herron Dartmouth College Ghaidaa Hetou Rutgers,The State University of New Jersey Neil Hibbert University of Saskatchewan Alexander Hicks Emory University John Higley University of Texas at Austin
Petronela Iacob Central European University (Budapest) Joanne Ibarra University of Texas at Austin Simon Jackman Stanford University William G. Jacoby Michigan State University
Christine Keating Ohio State University William R. Keech Duke University Anthony Kelly University of Southampton Norm Kelly Australian National University
Peter Hilger University of Helsinki
Farah Jan Rutgers,The State University of New Jersey
Hans Keman VU Univerity Amsterdam
Alexandra Elizabeth Hoerl Wabash College
Kenneth Janda Northwestern University
James Alan Kendrick Duke University
Samuel B. Hoff Delaware State University
Lee Jarvis Swansea University
Haroon A. Khan Henderson State University
Sean O. Hogan RTI International
Erin K. Jenne Central European University (Budapest)
L. Douglas Kiel University of Texas at Dallas
Stephen Holmes School of Law, New York University
David C. Johnston Columbia University
Youngmi Kim Central European University (Budapest)
Arthur Holst Widener University
Michael Johnston Colgate University
Edward King Concordia University
Marc Hooghe University of Leuven
Charles W. B. Jones University of Western Ontario
Kristy M. King Whitman College
Dana Howard Brown University
Randall J. Jones Jr. University of Central Oklahoma
Shannon King College of Wooster
Peter Hudis Oakton Community College
Joseph Jupille University of Colorado
Edgar Kiser University of Washington
Louisa S. Hulett Knox College
Ronald Kahn Oberlin College
Robert Klemmensen Syddansk Universitet
Andrew Hurrell Oxford University
Akis Kalaitzidis University of Central Missouri
Joseph L. Klesner Kenyon College
Stephen R. Hurt Oxford Brookes University
Mark E. Kann University of Southern California
Stephan Klingebiel German Development Institute
List of Authors xlvii George Klosko University of Virginia
Tom Lansford University of Southern Mississippi
Alan Levine American University
Aysegul Komsuoglu Istanbul University
Jeffrey Larsen Science Applications International Application; Larsen Consulting Group LLC
Daniel C. Lewis University of New Orleans
Jonathan Koppell Yale School of Management Karina Kosiara-Pedersen University of Copenhagen, Centre for Voting and Parties Spyros Kosmidis University of Essex Dirk Kotzé University of South Africa Michael E. Kraft University of Wisconsin–Green Bay Jeffrey Kraus Wagner College Martin Kreidl Masaryk University Charles A. Kromkowski University of Virginia Paul James Kubicek Oakland University Mirjam Künkler Princeton University George Thomas Kurian President, Encyclopedia Society Yves Laberge Independent Scholar, Quebec City Gladys Lang University of Washington Kurt Lang University of Washington
Jennifer L. Lawless Women and Politics Institute, American University
Mark Irving Lichbach University of Maryland Joel A. Lieske Cleveland State University
Regina G. Lawrence Manship School of Mass Communication, Louisiana State University
Mary Liston Faculty of Law, University of British Columbia
David L. Leal University of Texas at Austin
Baodong Liu University of Utah
J. Wesley Leckrone Widener University
Gerhard Loewenberg University of Iowa
André Lecours University of Ottawa
Joseph Losco Ball State University
Theresa Man Ling Lee University Of Guelph
Todd R. Lowery University of Maryland
Fabrice Lehoucq University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Robert C. Lowry University of Texas, Dallas
Gary Lehring Smith College
Cyanne E. Loyle University of Maryland
Stephan Leibfried Bremen University Julia Leininger German Development Institute Yphtach Lelkes Stanford University Howard H. Lentner City University of New York Eric K. Leonard Shenandoah University
Thorsten Luhde Federal Ministry of Finance (Germany) Sander Luitwieler Erasmus University Rotterdam Arthur Lupia University of Michigan Michael Lusztig Southern Methodist University Willem Maas York University David MacDonald University of Guelph
Margaret Meek Lange Independent Scholar
Eduardo Leoni IBGE—Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics
Stephen J. Lange Morehead State University
Paul Lermack Bradley University
Scott MacLeod Simon Fraser University
George R. La Noue University of Maryland, Baltimore County
David Levi-Faur Hebrew University
Allan MacNeill Webster University
Eric MacGilvray Ohio State University
xlviii List of Authors James Magee University of Delaware
James M. McCormick Iowa State University
Henry Milner Université de Montréal
Lars Magnusson Uppsala University
Rose McDermott Brown University
Fathali M. Moghaddam Georgetown University
Deanna Malatesta Indiana University–Purdue University Indianapolis
Tony McGann University of California, Irvine and University of Essex
Benoit F. Monange Institut d’Etudes Politiques de Grenoble
Laura Mamo San Francisco State University Cecilia G. Manrique University of Wisconsin–La Crosse Joseph R. Marbach La Salle University Raffaele Marchetti LUISS Guido Carli University Lee Marsden University of East Anglia Cathie Jo Martin Boston University Guy Martin Winston-Salem State University Janet M. Martin Bowdoin College Sherry L. Martin Cornell University Andrew D. Mason University of Southampton
James W. McGuire Wesleyan University Iain McLean Nuffield College, Oxford University Michael McNamara Cape Breton University Peter McNamara Utah State University Richard J. Meagher Randolph-Macon College John Medearis University of California, Riverside Jérôme Melançon University of Alberta, Augustana Campus Jiri S. Melich Kazakhstan Institute of Management, Economics, and Strategic Research (KIMEP) Raymond Mercado Duke University
Philippe Mongin Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique & Ecole des Hautes Etudes Commerciales Michael Moran School of Social Sciences, University of Manchester Jo Moran-Ellis Center for International Studies in Social Policy and Social Services, Bergische Universität Wuppertal Luis Moreno Spanish National Research Council (CSIC) Irwin L. Morris University of Maryland Rebecca B. Morton New York University Michael Mosher University of Tulsa Jennifer E. Mosley School of Social Service Administration, University of Chicago Gary Mucciaroni Temple University
Geoffroy Matagne University of Liege
Jonathan Mercer University of Washington
Lawrence C. Mayer Texas Tech University
John M. Meyer Humboldt State University
Gerardo L. Munck School of International Relations, University of Southern California
Sebastián Mazzuca Harvard University
Ellen Mickiewicz Duke University
Michael C. Munger Duke University
Erin McAdams College of Charleston
Andrea Migone Simon Fraser University
Andrew Murphy Rutgers,The State University of New Jersey
Keally McBride University of San Francisco
Mark C. Miller Clark University
Fortunato Musella University of Naples Federico II
Michael McCann University of Washington
Maren Milligan Oberlin College
Ella K. Myers University of Utah
List of Authors xlix Todd Myers Grossmont College Amarjit S. Narang Indira Gandhi National Open University Wissam Nasr Columbia University Karl-Heinz Nassmacher Institute of Social Sciences Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg Pervaiz Nazir University of Cambridge Cary J. Nederman Texas A&M University Jorge Nef University of Guelph Eric Nelson Missouri State University Roderick P. Neumann Florida International University James Newman Idaho State University Kate Nicholls National University of Singapore Eric Novotny U.S. Civilian Research & Development Foundation
Niall Ó Dochartaigh School of Political Science and Sociology, National University of Ireland, Galway Ismaila Odogba University of Wisconsin–Stevens Point Muhamad S. Olimat University of South Florida, St. Petersburg
Rick Parrish West Texas A&M University Eleonora Pasotti University of California, Santa Cruz Juliano Pasqual Fundacao Getulio Vargas
David M. Olson University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Benjamin J. Pauli Rutgers,The State University of New Jersey
Laura Olson Clemson University
Bruce G. Peabody Fairleigh Dickinson University
Barry O’Neill University of California, Los Angeles
Colin D. Pearce University of Guelph–Humber
Susan Marie Opp Colorado State University Danny Osborne University of California, Los Angeles Jeffery L. Osgood Jr. West Chester University of Pennsylvania Diana Owen Georgetown University John E. Owens University of Westminster Isik Ozel Sabanci University, Istanbul Fania Oz-Salzberger University of Haifa
Malte Pehl College of Charleston Riccardo Pelizzo Griffith University Daniel Pellerin National University of Singapore Glenn E. Perry Indiana State University Ravi Perry Clark University Leylâ Pervizat Haliç University in Istanbul Steven Peterson Penn State University
J. M. Norton University of Georgia
Jan Pakulski University of Tasmania
Hannu Nurmi University of Turku
Kari Palonen University of Jyväskylä
Adam W. Nye Pennsylvania State University
Niccole M. Pamphilis Michigan State University
Herbert Obinger Bremen University
Joel Parker University of Texas at Austin
Mark A. Pickup Centre for Research Methods in the Social Sciences, University of Oxford and Simon Fraser University
Edith Obinger-Gindulis Bremen University
Michael Parkin Oberlin College
Jean-Benoit Pilet Université libre de Bruxelles
Aron Octavian Central European University (Budapest)
John M. Parrish Loyola Marymount University
Pietro Pirani University of Western Ontario
Jon Pevehouse University of Wisconsin J. Mitchell Pickerill Washington State University
l List of Authors Wm. C. Plouffe Jr. Independent Scholar
David Rayside University of Toronto
Thomas R. Rourke Clarion University
Andrew Poe Amherst College
James H. Read College of St. Benedict and St. John’s University
Stephen R. Routh California State University, Stanislaus
Jonathan T. Polk University of Georgia Mark A. Pollack Temple University Colin Provost School of Public Policy, University College London Sue Pryce University of Nottingham Hermann Pünder Bucerius Law School (Hochschule für Rechtswissenschaft) Elizabeth Rholetter Purdy Independent Scholar Kurt Pyle Michigan State University George H. Quester University of Maryland
Chad Rector George Washington University Robert B. Reich University of California, Berkeley ˇ íchová Blanka R Charles University in Prague Jean-Marc Rickli Geneva University Strategic Studies Group Valéry Ridde Centre de recherche du CHUM, Université de Montréal Steven C. Roach University of South Florida Ian Roberge Glendon College,York University Andrew Roberts Northwestern University
John Quigley Michael E. Moritz College of Law, Ohio State University
Neil Robinson University of Limerick
Andrea Quinlan University of Saskatchewan
Stephen R. Rock Vassar College
Kirk A. Randazzo University of South Carolina
Joseph Romance Drew University
Anthony L. Rappa Singapore Institute of Management (SIM) University
Richard Rose University of Aberdeen
Paul S. Rowe Trinity Western University Molly Ruhlman Temple University Mark Rush Williams School of Commerce, Economics and Politics,Washington and Lee University Peter Rutland Wesleyan University Thomas Saalfeld University of Bamberg Filippo Sabetti McGill University Marcelo Saguier Latin American School of Social Sciences Joseph C. Santora Thomas Edison State College Austin Sarat Amherst College Meredith Reid Sarkees American University Larry Savage Brock University Marian Sawer Australian National University
Claire E. Rasmussen University of Delaware
Susan Rose-Ackerman Yale University, Law School and Department of Political Science
William C. Schaniel University of West Georgia
Dennis C. Rasmussen Tufts University
Steven Rosefielde University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Marc Schattenmann Advisory Council, Das Progressive Zentrum, Berlin
Carsten Rauch Peace Research Institute Frankfurt
David H. Rosenbloom City University of Hong Kong
Gary Schaub Jr. Air War College
Clyde Ray Villanova University
Bo Rothstein University of Gothenburg
Kay Lehman Schlozman Boston College
List of Authors li Vivien A. Schmidt Boston University
Katri Sieberg University of Tampere
Lyndsey Stanfill Ohio State University
Saundra K. Schneider Michigan State University
Carlos Nunes Silva Institute of Geography and Spatial Planning, University of Lisbon
Koen Stapelbroek Erasmus University Rotterdam
Julian Schofield Concordia University
Marian Simms Deakin University
Jennifer A. Steen Arizona State University, School of Government, Politics and Global Studies
David Schultz Hamline University
J. P. Singh Georgetown University
Chris Matthew Sciabarra New York University Jason Scorza Fairleigh Dickinson University Kyle Scott University of North Florida David O. Sears University of California, Los Angeles Nicholas J. Seaton Public Opinion Research Laboratory, University of North Florida Susan K. Sell George Washington University Jeffrey Shantz Kwantlen Polytechnic University Paul Sharp University of Minnesota, Duluth Steve Sheppard University of Arkansas Kenneth A. Shepsle Institute for Quantitative Social Science, Harvard University David A. Shirk University of San Diego Gordon Shockley School of Community Resources and Development, Arizona State University Carisa R. Showden University of North Carolina at Greensboro Peter M. Siavelis Wake Forest University
Henry B. Sirgo McNeese State University Richard M. Skinner Rollins College Jonathan Slapin University of Houston Brian Slocock University of West of Scotland Dennis Smith Loughborough University
Manfred B. Steger Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology Peter J. Steinberger Reed College John Steinbruner University of Maryland Jennifer Sterling-Folker University of Connecticut Garth Stevenson Brock University
Martin J. Smith University of Sheffield
Judith Hicks Stiehm Florida International University
Stephen Smith University College London
Brian Stipelman Dowling University
T. C. Smith Albright College
Daniel Stockemer University of Ottawa
Anand E. Sokhey Ohio State University M. Scott Solomon University of South Florida Albert Somit Southern Illinois University Robert Speel Penn State Erie, Behrend College James H. Spencer University of Hawai’i at Manoa Clemens Spiess Heidelberg University Peter J. Spiro Beasley School of Law,Temple University Hendrik Spruyt Northwestern University Lavinia Stan St Francis Xavier University
Gregory W. Streich University of Central Missouri Heinz Sünker Center for International Studies in Social Policy and Social Services, Bergische Universität Wuppertal Thomas C. Sutton Baldwin-Wallace College Gert Tinggaard Svendsen Aarhus University Donald G. Tannenbaum Gettysburg College Gregory Tardi Institute of Parliamentary and Political Law Shira Tarrant California State University, Long Beach
lii List of Authors Sidney Tarrow Cornell University
Nadia Urbinati Columbia University
Lena Wängnerud University of Gothenburg
Steven Tauber University of South Florida
Jennifer (van Heerde) Hudson University College London
James F. Ward University of Massachusetts, Boston
Abigaile Marguerite VanHorn Purdue University
Andrew J. Waskey Dalton State College
Tatiana Vashchilko University of Rochester
Georgina Waylen University of Sheffield
Francisco José Veiga Universidade do Minho (Portugal)
Ronald Weed University of New Brunswick
Peter Vermeersch University of Leuven
David L. Weeks Azusa Pacific University
Matías Vernengo University of Utah
Gregory Weeks University of North Carolina at Charlotte
Aaron Thomas University of California, Los Angeles
Steven Vertovec Max-Planck-Institute for the Study of Religious and Ethnic Diversity
David L. Weiden Indiana University–Purdue University Indianapolis
Michael J. Thompson William Paterson University
John R.Vile Middle Tennessee State University
Richard R. Weiner Rhode Island College
Barbara Vis VU University Amsterdam
Howard J. Wiarda University of Georgia
Paul W. Thurner Department of Political Science, University of Munich (LMU)
Wim J. M.Voermans Leiden University, the Netherlands
Erik Wibbels Duke University
Martina Topic´ University of Zagreb, Croatia
John von Heyking University of Lethbridge
Wesley W. Widmaier Centre for Governance and Public Policy/ Griffith Asia Institute, Griffith University
Cirila Toplak University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Matthew Voorhees Hartwick College
Pier Domenico Tortola University of Oxford
F. Peter Wagner University of Wisconsin–Whitewater
Nelson Wikstrom Douglas Wilder School of Government and Public Affairs,Virginia Commonwealth University
Lee Trepanier Saginaw Valley State University
Amentahru Wahlrab University of Texas at Tyler
Harold L. Wilensky University of California, Berkeley
Lily L. Tsai Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Claire Wallace University of Aberdeen
Brent M. Will Temple University
Mark Tunick Wilkes Honors College
Jennifer E. Walsh Azusa Pacific University
Kenneth C. Williams Michigan State University
Jack Turner University of Washington
Henry Kiragu Wambuii University of Central Missouri
Russell Alan Williams Memorial University of Newfoundland
Rodrigo Tavares United Nations University–Institute on Comparative Regional Integration Studies (UNU-CRIS) Sarah Taylor New School for Social Research Joanne Tetlow Comptroller of Maryland Göran Therborn University of Cambridge Michael Thom Michigan State University
Chris Thornhill University of Glasgow
List of Authors liii Graham K. Wilson Boston University
Melike Wulfgramm Bremen University
Matthew S. Winters University of Illinois
James S. Wunsch Creighton University
James J. Wirtz Naval Postgraduate School Christopher Wlezien Temple University Albert B. Wolf University of California, Irvine Kerri Woods University of York
Harald Wydra St Catharine’s College, University of Cambridge Vineeta Yadav University of Notre Dame Richard M.Yon U.S. Military Academy
Claudia Zilla Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik (SWP), German Institute for International and Security Affairs Joseph F. Zimmerman Rockefeller College, University at Albany Roukayatou Zimmermann Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE) Catherine Zuckert University of Notre Dame
Kent Worcester Marymount Manhattan College
Dannagal Goldthwaite Young University of Delaware
Michael Zuckert University of Notre Dame
Jeff Worsham West Virginia University
Dana Zartner Tulane University
Benjamin Zyla University of Ottawa
PREFACE
Man is by nature a political animal. —Aristotle The Encyclopedia of Political Science (TEPS) is an ambitious survey of the world of politics at the beginning of the twentyfirst century. TEPS, developed by the Encyclopedia Society and CQ Press with the assistance of the American Political Science Association (APSA), is an authoritative resource for political scientists and students of politics throughout the world. It assembles more than 1,500 signed articles by contributors from nearly forty countries, making it one of the largest encyclopedias on political science published to date. Politics has many definitions, all of which are explored in this work. Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary offers one of the classic and broadest definitions of politics as the quest for good government. Politics is thus one of the most consequential of collective human activities and, next to religion, possibly the oldest. The search for good government has engaged humans from the time they formed groups and communities; modern political science brings an unprecedented toolbox of conceptual and empirical instruments to this search. Hence, political science is one of the world’s most interdisciplinary disciplines—there is scarcely any area of human life untouched by it. Political science impinges on and is influenced by public administration, electoral processes, economics, religion, legal systems, societal ethos, education, technology, science, and a host of other related activities and disciplines. Politics is about power: who wields it, how it should be used, and the relationship between the ruler and the ruled. Because politics determines the pathways to power, it also serves as the gateway to history: what is politics today is history tomorrow. Every discipline requires a flagship resource that professionals, teachers, and students can use. TEPS is designed to be such a foundational resource for political science. It is primarily a synchronic encyclopedia that presents the state of the art by assembling and distilling ideas. This is the function defined by the old Latin term for encyclopedias, Notitia. TEPS is also a diachronic encyclopedia that presents the foundations and historic evolution of political ideas, concepts, and theories. This is the function defined by the Latin term Summa. Political science is driven by ideas and concepts, values and theories, as well as philosophers and thinkers. Politics represents the confluence of theory and praxis. On the one hand, ideologies form the bedrock of political science. But politics also exists
as an empirical science, especially in the arena of government and elections. TEPS devotes a considerable number of entries both to the nomothetic, or abstract, side of political science and to the empirical side. The appearance of TEPS at the beginning of the twentyfirst century is significant because the end of the twentieth century brought enormous challenges to politics. Quantitatively, the universe of political science has expanded. The global electorate—the number of voters eligible to vote in free elections—is now 3.8 billion, compared to just 87 million at the beginning of the twentieth century. This means that more people have become stakeholders in the political process throughout the world. There are 193 sovereign nations in the world, compared to 35 at the beginning of the twentieth century, and more of them are democratic than ever before. There are 1.7 million political officeholders and elected officials in the world. The number of universities with political science departments has decupled and so has the number of political science scholars and political science media and associations. The qualitative changes have been equally impressive. The world of politics is continually buffeted by remarkable events and transformed in unlikely ways. The sovereignty of the nation-state has been eroded by endogenous and exogenous forces, including the growing globalization of a borderless world from without and centrifugal ethnic, nationalist, religious, and linguistic forces from within. The very lexicon of politics has changed, and the sources of collective identity have been recast. New concerns and issues such as the environment have challenged the primacy of such older concerns as economic inequality. Solidarities animated by gender, race, ethnicity, religion, and language have challenged the old dichotomies based on the traditional Left/Right polarities.The Internet has transformed political communications and is competing with the ballot box as an agent of political change. Vox Populi has become Twitter Populi. TEPS is not merely concerned with change. Although change forces us to view the world as a moving target, there are enduring themes in politics that remain as urgent in the twenty-first century as they did in Athens in the second century B.C. The institutional and constitutional bases of politics and the loci, exercise, and legitimacy of power confront political scientists as much today as they did in Aristotle’s time. Political corruption and cronyism are as rampant today
lvi Preface as they were in ancient Rome. Politics is about power, and Lord Acton’s dictum that power corrupts, absolute power corrupts absolutely, holds true today. Other enduring themes include the rule of law, modernization, demography, revolution, reform and restoration, tradition, convergence, value systems, lifestyles, class and ethnic conflicts, religious conflicts, the homogenization of cultures, and the preservation of diversity. These colliding political ideas and movements have blurred the traditional tidy boundaries of political science and in some cases have caused them to disappear altogether. Political science, like politics itself, has become borderless. Political science now represents the union of law, economics, anthropology, media studies, women’s studies, sociology, law, history, theology, international relations, statistics, technology, and philosophy. Political scientists import ideas from other disciplines and, in turn, export ideas to them, but, on balance, political science is a net importer of ideas. On an ideological level, the traditional and convenient binary divisions (Left/Right, North/ South, domestic/international) that once constrained innovative scholarship have disappeared or no longer hold as much currency. TEPS thus maps the enlarged terrain of political science as we move into the twenty-first century. There are large areas of political life and culture not covered or explained by political theory. These include the imponderable and unpredictable dilemmas, the problems and paradoxes, that make the study of politics a formidable undertaking. It is the task of political scientists in the twenty-first century to deal with these problems. Among them are: Problem 1. Why does it appear that injustice persists even under the best legal systems and in the best governed nations and under the best constitutions? Do the foibles and frailties of human nature—including corruption, scandals, and blunders—make the quality of any political system no better than the quality of its politicians? Problem 2. From whence comes the force of the status quo and inertia in political evolution, the almost pathological resistance to change in human nature? Problem 3. Is it power alone that corrupts, or does powerlessness corrupt just as much? Problem 4. Why does politics, like religion, seem to be a source of disunity as much or even more than of unity, and why are divisions in democracies perhaps even more prevalent than under other political systems? Problem 6. Do the Eurocentric assumptions of political science about political beliefs and behavior, such as theories about sovereignty, nationalism, and political ethics, have relevance in the Third World, or do they actually contribute to failed and rogue states like Somalia in Africa and Afghanistan in the Middle East? Problem 7.Why do class and ethnic groups radically diverge on their political ideologies and philosophical stances despite sharing a common political system? As Gilbert and Sullivan famously said, “Why are some men born Tory and others born Whig?” Problem 8. How are conventional notions of civil rights, citizenship, and nationality scrambled and reassembled in the
presence of large groups of undocumented immigrants in industrialized countries? As in all social sciences, there are no absolutes in political science. Every political system, every form of government, and every method of determining the popular will ever devised by man is flawed—some more than others. In Plato’s philosophy, all forms of government are only shadows of the ultimate ideal government in the unseen realm. The task of the political scientist is to bridge the gap between the shadows and the ideal. Political science is not merely an academic discipline, and political scientists do not just study the anatomy of politics. Political science is renewed with every political administration and with every major political event and with every political leader. Influential political leaders construct their own -isms (Fidelism/Castroism, Maoism, Gandhism, Reaganism, and so on) so that the political philosophies and ideologies that undergird the discipline have to be reinvented constantly. Further, political science is arguably so important in the scheme of human knowledge because of its normative function. As problems emerge in the body politic, political science suggests remedies, probes into causes, and provides solutions. TEPS is designed to frame the issues, problems, and challenges and to provoke a polygonal effort to suggest solutions. ARCHITECTURE
The value of an encyclopedia resides not merely in its contents but in what the French call ordonnance—the selection, classification, and arrangement of entries and the placement of navigational aids. TEPS is a strict A–Z encyclopedia that follows the principles of alphabetization in the Chicago Manual of Style. Each entry of more than five hundred words carries a bibliography that includes journal articles. Most entries carry cross references to related entries. Readers are also advised to consult the Thematic Table of Contents that appears in the frontmatter. This is a map of the entries in the book organized by subject matter or subfield. Within each theme, there are six classes of entries, each weighted and assigned a length based on its importance. Class 1, Core Articles: These are wide-ranging articles that define a field or major analytic concerns and include commentary, discussion, interpretation, and comprehensive reviews of literature. They are designed as tours d’horizon to lay the groundwork for all other entries. Class 2, Long Interpretive Essays: These delve substantively into key issues, concepts, ideas, and theories or develop a particular argument or thesis. Class 3, Short Descriptive Essays: These deal with the less theoretical and programmatic aspects of the discipline but have no commentary. Class 4, Breakout Articles: These are derivatives from core articles that examine and explore particular aspects of a topic. Class 5, Lexical Entries: These are designed to provide useful definitions of unusual terms and concepts. Class 6, Biographies: No biographies of living persons (with a few exceptions) are included in this category, but the nearly
Preface lvii three hundred biographies cover the seminal thinkers and figures in the formation of political science as it is today and will be in the coming century. APSA ASSISTANCE
TEPS was produced and published with the assistance of the American Political Science Association (APSA), the world’s largest professional organization for the study of politics and political science. It is a privilege the editorial board and publisher have taken seriously, and we have tried to meet the high standards of scholarship that such a collaboration demands. The APSA nominated the five members of the editorial board, and APSA’s membership formed the principal source for contributors. When I approached Michael Brintall, executive director of APSA, with the idea of producing the first major political science encyclopedia of the twenty-first century, he warmly embraced the vision and offered the full support of the organization. But for his positive response and unwavering commitment, TEPS would never have become a reality. EDITORIAL ORGANIZATION
Three elements determine the strength and quality of an encyclopedia. The first is the credentials of the contributors—any encyclopedia is only as good as its contributors. We assembled one of the finest teams of political science scholars, based on the recommendations of the editorial board. The contributors were drawn from a host of disciplines in the social sciences and humanities as well as political science. All were chosen for the originality and importance of their contributions. They were also chosen from more than forty countries to ensure that the breadth and range of interpretations match the needs of a global information age. The selection of articles and the mix of authors represent an attempt to strike a balance among various schools of thought, regions of the world, gender identities, and ideological emphases. The second element of strength in an encyclopedia is the editorial board. We had three levels in place. The principal, or working, editorial board consisted of five members nominated by the APSA: James E. Alt, Simone Chambers, Geoffrey Garrett, Margaret Levi, and Paula D. McClain. Core articles in TEPS bear the impress of their careful review and input. To bring such a vast work to completion, even more help was
needed, and we are most grateful for all the work of the content editors who reviewed long and short essay entries.We also thank the larger seventy-two–member board of editorial consultants and advisers and the international board of editorial advisers, which was drawn from political science associations from around the world to assist the editor in chief in choosing contributors from outside the United States. Together, these boards shepherded the project and enlisted the best possible contributions from universities and associations across the globe.The full list of members of these three boards appears in the preceding pages. The last element of strength is the publisher. CQ Press has remained for many decades the premier political science publisher in the United States, and its imprint guarantees the integrity of a work. Over the four years TEPS was in the making, I had the privilege of working with a number of veteran publishers and editors at CQ Press, including John Jenkins, the president; Andrea Pedolsky, editorial director; and Doug Goldenberg-Hart, acquisitions editor. Doug is an experienced reference book editor, and his editorial skills and dedication kept the project on track during its extended gestation. The development editing team was led initially by January Layman-Wood; followed by Nancy Matuszak, who helped to bring the project successfully to its home stretch; Andrea Cunningham; and John Martino. Finally, at the Encyclopedia Society, managing editor Sarah Claudine Day worked on the project from beginning to end. Our collective mission for TEPS was not merely to create an encyclopedia that is original, accurate, and comprehensive but also one that conveys through its 1,500 entries some of the vitality and excitement of the world of political science and politics and offers vibrant cutting-edge interpretations and insights. We welcome and earnestly solicit feedback in the form of comments, suggestions, and corrections for future editions. Please address them to me ([emailprotected]) or to the publisher ([emailprotected]). GEORGE THOMAS KURIAN Editor in Chief August 2010
INTRODUCTION
The Encyclopedia of Political Science offers scholars and students easy access to the essential concepts in political science in the early twenty-first century. Organized by traditional subfields, such as political theory, comparative politics, international relations, and public policy, it also incorporates those fields that have emerged more recently, for example, race and ethnicity, gender studies, and political economy. In addition, the content reflects the blurring of boundaries increasingly prevalent in political science—whether this occurs in association with cultural studies, neurology, history, or economics. Biographical entries provide a sense of the history of the discipline, and methodological entries suggest the variety of approaches—sometimes used singly and sometimes in combination—available for studying politics. There is material that gives background on countries, theorists, and theories, and there are entries on terms that everyone should know and entries on terms only specialists require. Diversity in practice characterizes political scientists in their research and teaching, and the editors of this text have tried to respect and illuminate this pluralism. We endea vored to be sensitive to controversies and disagreements over methods, approaches, and models of the world while providing access to what has become an increasingly specialized subject. We also paid attention throughout to enduring questions and topics, such as war and peace, democratization, political development, and ethnic conflict—topics that cut across the subfields of the discipline—while making room to cover some novel initiatives at the cutting edge of research in the field. We recognize that at any time such an encyclopedia as this is necessarily a snapshot, but we have tried to reflect the ways in which political science, like other fields of inquiry, is constantly evolving in reaction both to debates among scholars and to developments in the real world of politics.
DEVELOPMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE AND ITS CLASSICAL FIELDS The introduction to The Encyclopedia of Political Science should contain a short history of the development of the discipline of political science. Yet one is not easy to construct, given the various views on what the discipline is. According to Farr (1988), if one understands political science as the “more-or-less empirical study of practical politics,” then Aristotle is the beginning. If perceived as the study of realpolitik, then Machiavelli gets the nod. If focused on the character of the modern state,
then Hobbes is central. If one considers the study of politics a science, then Hume and others in the Scottish Enlightenment might be considered its “founders.” Finally, if one thinks of it as an academic discipline with a school devoted to the study of politics, then John W. Burgess should be considered the founder of American political science, and “everything before the School of Political Science founded at Columbia University in 1880 will be ‘pre-history’ ” (Farr 1988: 1178). Ira Katznelson and Helen Milner (2002: 6) suggest that the many narratives of the development of the discipline “often overlook deep continuities that have made up political science during its first century as an organized discipline.” They reiterate the familiar retelling of the history of political science—“[a]n early legal-formal constitutionally oriented discipline was supplanted by a more scientific, behavioral impulse” (p. 7). Later, behavioralism was replaced by a post-behavioral stage with multiple methods but with a view toward unification of the discipline through a method-specific research program.They argue that even these approaches to the history of the discipline “are both too simple and too complex.” The simplicity results “from the tendency to overstate the internal consistency of a given period within and across subfields,” while the complexity results “because their periodization tends to miss the manner in which American political science has been continuous across epochs” (p. 7). These historical narratives identify the study of the state with the first epoch, the study of power with the middle epoch, and the study of choice with the latest epoch (p. 7).This characterization of the growth of the discipline of political science nicely captures Anglo-Saxon approaches, particularly in the United States and Great Britain, but many of the themes and issues tend to occur, if in somewhat different forms and languages, throughout the world. This particular orientation to the history of political science, based on the study of concepts, differs from that of Charles Merriam in his 1925 book, New Aspects of Politics, which viewed the development of the discipline through the lens of analytical methods. Merriam divided the development of political science into four periods—the a priori and deductive method (1850 and earlier); historical and comparative method (1850–1900); observation, survey, and measurement (1900–); and the beginnings of the psychological treatment of politics in the 1920s (Merriam 1925 as quoted in Farr 1988: 79).1
lx Introduction Merriam’s construction of the discipline of political science prompted a response some years later from Bernard Crick. In The American Science of Politics (1959), Crick articulated the perspective of many British political scientists. He believed that American political science was trading in a false scientism “that seeks universally applicable general theories, a scientism that arguably masks its actual role as an American ideology” (Adcock and Bevir 2005). He argued that the increasing focus on scientism by American political scientists came at the expense of older modes of thought, for example, history and philosophy. What this brief discussion suggests is the difficulty of providing a definitive history of the development of the discipline given the wide variety of perspectives about what political science is and should do. One attempt to create an overview is found in this encyclopedia’s article, “Political Science, History of,” by John G. Gunnell, who uses a democratic narrative as the overarching theme. Other approaches are equally plausible. Yet despite the lack of consensus on the development of the discipline, some consensus can be reached on the classic subfields that developed over time, as reflected in the subfields offered by most political science departments (KaufmanOsborn 2006). These classic subfields are: 1. The politics of a country or region. Whether this is British, French, Latin American, Chinese, or American depends on the location of relevant universities and practitioners. Each has its own distinctive history. We shall use as an example American politics, which incorporates the study of political behavior, public opinion, elections, electoral structure, institutions, political parties, and different levels of government—national, state, local, urban—in the United States. The subfield embraces writings from the founding and early development of the United States—The Federalist Papers (and some of the Anti-Federalist papers) and John Adams, Thomas Paine, and Alexis de Tocqueville, among others. Classic early academic texts include Woodrow Wilson’s Congressional Government: A Study in American Politics (1885), James Bryce’s The American Commonwealth (1888), and Arthur Bentley’s The Process of Government (1908). 2. Comparative politics began as a field that encompassed two things: “area” studies of countries and regions other than one’s own and comparisons of governmental institutions, including legislatures, electoral systems, and prime ministers versus presidents, among countries. Currently, the subfield focuses not only on the politics of countries around the globe but also on concepts and how they apply across countries, for example, democratization and tolerance, among others. The institutional and ideological foundations of the modern national state are central concerns of comparative politics (Boix and Stokes 2007). While Aristotle studied the development of constitutions and John Andrews published A Comparative View of the French and English Nations, in Their Manners, Politics and Literature in 1785, “modern” books incorporating “comparative politics” into their titles probably date from 1961 with
the publication of Comparative Politics: Notes and Readings by Bernard E. Brown and Roy C. Macridis. 3. International relations is the study of relations among nation-states (countries) and the organization of the inter national system via public, private, and nongovernmental institutions. The field originated in the early twentieth century as the United States expanded its influence around the world, but its intellectual origins date back far earlier to Thucydides and Clausewitz. Contemporary academic scholarship begins with such works as Alfred Zimmern’s The Study of International Relations (1931) and Harold D. Lasswell’s World Politics and Personal Insecurity (1935). 4. Political theory is an interdisciplinary endeavor of theoretical inquiry and philosophical reflection on political interactions among humans whose center of gravity is at the humanities end of the discipline of political science. Political theory includes classical political philosophy and such contemporary theoretical concerns as postmodernism, critical theory, and constructivism. Until the mid-1970s political theory, as practiced within political science, was dominated by the exegetical study of classical texts in the history of Western political thought. Since the publication of John Rawl’s A Theory of Justice (1971), however, political theory has increasingly turned to normative theory and ethical and moral concerns about politics. This move has seen issues of justice and equity, democracy, liberalism, secular and religious ways of life, identity and difference, and the good life take center stage. Classical texts, such as Plato’s Republic, Hobbes’s Leviathan, and John Stuart Mill’s On Liberty, still make up the canon of political theory, and every specialist still needs to be conversant with this history, but contemporary research focuses heavily on moral and normative questions facing modern political communities. Will Kymlicka’s Contemporary Political Philosophy: An Introduction (2002) is widely regarded as the best overall statement of the state of the field today. 5. Public administration (and, later, public policy), whose early boundaries were defined by Woodrow Wilson’s famous 1887 essay, “The Study of Administration,” studies the role of bureaucracy in society and the role of administrators in bureaucracies. Whereas Wilson, according to Donald Kettl (1993), is generally considered the father of the study of administration, Alexander Hamilton is identified as the person responsible for the practice of American public administration. From its roots in the reform and scientific management movements, the Institute of Public Administration (later to become Syracuse University’s Maxwell School) introduced formal training in public administration. Over time, the subfield of public policy—with its emphasis on the interactions that produce outcomes rather than on the bureaucratic process per se—developed from its foundations in public administration. Public administration began as a subfield of political science, but in recent years, it and public policy are often housed in separate schools focused more on the practice of government than the study of politics.
Introduction lxi 6. Public law and judicial politics consist of a number of areas of study with a mix of methodological approaches. Public law and constitutional law are associated with the study of the courts, beginning with the U.S. Supreme Court. Martin Shapiro (1993: 363) indicates that until the 1950s, “public law” was thought to contain three distinct entities—constitutional law, administrative law, and international law—linked, respectively, to American politics, public administration, and international relations. Classic constitutional texts include John Marshall and the Constitution: A Chronicle of the Supreme Court (1919) and The Constitution and What It Means Today (1920), both by Edwin S. Corwin. Behaviorism ushered in the study of judicial behavior/ judicial politics, and the focus shifted away from the decisions made by the courts to the process and behavior of the judges and justices making those decisions. Changes in the nature of politics and the dynamism of political science have led to the development of additional subfields, including race, ethnicity, and politics; gender and politics; and lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgendered politics. These subfields are now quite robust, with intellectually stimulating research, and the concerns raised by scholars in these areas are increasingly incorporated into the more traditional subfields. There has also been increasing attention paid to the subfield of methods, with a focus on how to study politics rather than on what to study. In addition, political economy, political psychology, and other subfields that emphasize cross-disciplinary approaches have become permanent features of many modern political science departments. All of these developments, both the most recent and the longest past, reflect the evolution of the discipline to better respond to the enduring questions of politics, resolve the dissensus over how best to answer these questions, explore new frontiers in the study of politics, and reflect on real and pressing political and governmental issues of the day.
ENDURING QUESTIONS Although political science as a modern discipline did not emerge until the second half of the nineteenth century, the study of politics is often thought to have started in ancient Greece and especially in Athens during the tumultuous years spanning the transition from Athenian city-state democracy to Alexander the Great’s global empire. The grand themes of war and peace, dictatorship and democracy, wealth and poverty, and interests and values were taken up by such thinkers as Thucydides, Plato, and Aristotle and studied in their own right, which is to say independent of cosmology, religion, and mysticism. Many of the questions and themes that engaged these ancient thinkers still occupy the contemporary agenda. This is not because no progress has been made since the ancient Greeks or because there is no cumulative knowledge in the social sciences. Far from it. A great deal more is known today than was known by the ancient Greeks both at the individual level of the citizen and the aggregate level of states. The enduring questions are enduring not because there are
not good answers to them; often there are. They are enduring because each and every political community has to confront and deal with them anew. WAR AND PEACE
War is a constant in human history. Yet the questions that everyone wants answered are: Why do states go to war, and how do we achieve peace? The answers depend on the findings to related questions, chief among them how to understand and explain relations among states. As Carl von Clausewitz famously stated, war is a continuation of inter national politics by other, violent means. Why do states act the way they do? Is the international system anarchic, and, if it is, is the anarchy governed by strategic logic? Or are there rules, written and unwritten, that work to effectively regulate the international sphere? The nature of the international order still poses the same enduring questions that puzzled Thucydides (why did the Peloponnesians go to war?), but an ever-changing set of circumstances poses new challenges to every generation of scholars attempting to solve the puzzle of war. Chief among these different circumstances are the development of human rights and globalization. Human rights and their defense, codification, proliferation, and enforcement, as well as globalization of communication, markets, and politics, raise perennial issues concerning the relation of the macro and micro in human relations, interaction, and regulation. War and peace not only direct our gaze to the many questions concerning international relations but also to questions about inward-looking versus outward-looking state policy. In political science, whether to spend money and effort internationally or domestically is often referenced in shorthand as “guns or butter?” Why and under what circumstances do states invest in defense and security rather than welfare, infrastructure, and job training? To put it another way: What role and effect do security questions have on political decisions and domestic policy? How do national and international spheres interact on political grounds? For a list of articles related to these topics, the reader should see the following Thematic Table of Contents headings: Foreign Policy; Globalization and Politics; Inter national Security and Arms Control; and War, Peace, and Terrorism. DICTATORSHIP AND DEMOCRACY
Plato and Aristotle were very interested in regime types and regime change. It would be an understatement to say that the choice of form of government has been central and still is central to political science. Classifying regimes and explaining how and why regimes crumble, are overthrown, explode into civil strife, stabilize, reform, stagnate, and evolve are core activities of modern political science. This is a rich and diverse area framed by an implicit (sometimes explicit) normative dichotomy between dictatorship as something to be avoided and democracy as something to be admired. Modern political science is a global phenomenon that thrives in democracies, and so it is unsurprising that this regime type has a special
lxii Introduction place within the study of politics. Indeed, all of American politics as a subfield could in some sense be understood as the study of democracy. From micro-level questions about why people vote the way they do to macro questions of why democracies do not seem to wage wars against each other, the role of the citizen in democracy is key. Voting and political participation are the most obvious arenas in which to study why and when democratic citizens act and with what consequences. However, these only touch the tip of questions, puzzles, and issues opened up by the question “What is a citizen?” But as much as political science has been enthralled with democracy, it has also been fascinated by how democratization occurs and how democracies endure or break down. The question of regime transition moves beyond the citizen to the forces within which citizens move and which in turn move citizens—power, authority, legitimacy, and law are core political concepts without which the political world could not begin to be explained. They are also contested concepts, with scholars disagreeing about what they mean. More important, scholars disagree about how these forces work and behave in the empirical world. This disagreement has been hugely productive in political science, powering creative empirical research as well as theoretical insight. For a list of articles related to these topics, the reader should see the following Thematic Table of Contents headings: Comparative Politics; Democracy and Democratization; Nation and State; and Representation and Electoral Systems. WEALTH AND POVERTY
Aristotle noted that the most stable regimes almost always have a large middle class and hence a relatively egalitarian distribution of income and wealth. Since his time we have been trying to figure out in regard to both output and input how and in what ways economic questions connect to political ones. On the output side we ask about the impact of economic policy and, especially, the large role played by redistributive policies on the life and structure of the political community. All governments across the spectrum redistribute to some degree, but some redistribute to the rich and some to the poor. The forms and variation are enormous. Can we account for this variation? On the input side we want to know how different economic regimes and existing distributions of wealth affect, shape, and, indeed, determine politics. Harold Lasswell went so far as to argue that politics is the study of who gets what, when, and why—the causes and consequences of political decisions over the distribution of economic output. While the distribution of economic output is an enduring theme in political science, gender, race, culture, ethnicity, and religion increasingly have also become significant categories in the analysis of social stratification and political choices over them. How interest and belief both shape and are shaped by politics and were always the subject of political study, as well as the attention to additional modes of stratification, raises new questions about the sources and effects of interests and beliefs.
For a list of articles related to these topics, the reader should see the following Thematic Table of Contents headings: Gender and Politics; Political Economy; Politics and Society; and Politics of Oppression; Race, Ethnicity, and Politics. INTERESTS AND VALUES
Both output and input questions can be framed by general theoretical paradigms that place economic interest more or less at the center of analysis. The classic example of a configured economic interest lies in class analysis, and one alternative is contemporary rational choice, which emphasizes the individual as the key actor. Political science has thrived and developed in states that value freedom and equality as well as democracy. How such values are instantiated through politics is a common theme in modern political science. While specific interests are not necessarily opposed to certain values, how they interact and the weight we ought to give each in our explanations are perennial themes of political science. For a list of articles related to these topics, the reader should see the following Thematic Table of Contents headings: Ethics and Political Corruption; Ideologies; Interest Groups and Lobbies; Political Behavior; and Political Concepts. CONSENSUS AND DISSENSUS
While almost all political scientists believe that what they study should have consequences for understanding and possibly improving the world in which we live, there is nonetheless sharp disagreement about how to best promote such understanding. For some political science is a means to comment on contemporary events, but for most it provides a means for analyzing the enduring questions already discussed and the concepts implicated by those questions, for example, power, influence, conflict, and institutional design. The contestation over concepts and the disagreement over what kinds of interests—class, individual, or group identity—motivate action and how those interests interact with values have already been noted. Decisions in regard to concepts, interests, and values inform the kind of analysis used for the problem under investigation. Probably one of the greatest and most long-lasting divides is among those who believe that analysis necessarily requires statistical methods and formal (that is, mathematical) theories and those who emphasize context, sensitivity, and nuance through fieldwork, archives, and the texts of great political thinkers. Increasingly, many young scholars are using all of these tools. Nevertheless, the way departments are organized, heated debates over appropriate qualifications to receive a doctorate, and the controversies that raged in the heyday of the “Perestroika” movement among political scientists (following the new openness of Gorbachev’s Soviet Union)2 all suggest a continuing qualitative/quantitative divide. Beyond methodological disputes are enduring differences over substantive questions. Political science still can boast relatively few, if any, “laws of politics,” which is understandable given that politics involves human interactions with its
Introduction lxiii multiplicity of actors, strategies, and issues. Barriers to agreement are created by the lack of appropriate data for arbitrating contradictory claims. For example, there is consensus that power is a key concept for political science, but still no one is clear about just what it is or how to study it. The “community power” debate that raged in the 1960s and 1970s still lacks resolution.3 “Non–decision making,” hegemony, and other— so far—nonobservable influences on what people believe it is possible to do make it difficult to empirically refute (if one is so inclined) Robert Dahl’s pluralistic conception of power distribution. Yet, as noted below, there is beginning to be progress on the sources of preferences and beliefs, the key to understanding who has power and how power relations are maintained. By limiting the focus to certain tractable aspects of power, such as minimum winning coalitions and agenda control in legislatures, there has been considerably more success in understanding who has power in given contexts and circumstances under particular sets of rules. Yet, while there are certainly findings in these domains, detractors object to the narrowing of the question and to the overreliance on technique. Increasing the science at the expense of the politics—and vice versa—remains the deep challenge for the discipline—and was one even before Bernard Crick raised the issue. Political scientists largely share a consensus over the key issues in politics. It is the conceptualization and measurement of those issues that generate debate. What does it mean for citizens to trust government or for government to be trustworthy? We know government effectiveness rests at least in part on its capacity to deliver services and to obtain legitimacy. But how do we define, let alone measure, government capacity or legitimacy? Recent research is beginning to make headway on these issues as well as further illuminate solutions to the enduring questions and puzzles of political science. In the process, new political science questions are coming to the fore. For a list of articles related to these topics, the reader should see the following Thematic Table of Contents headings: Comparative Politics; Federalism and Local Politics; Institutions and Checks and Balances; Political Concepts; Political Theory; and Qualitative/Quantitative Methods.
POLITICAL SCIENCE AND POLITICS Before turning to the frontiers of political science research, there is one more divide we must address. As the previous subsection mentioned, one major source of discord in political science is the tension between its scientific ambitions and its political relevance. The “scientism,” the rigorous scientific ambitions of many American political scientists, remains one of its enduring features from the invariably critical perspectives of political scientists in most other countries and by more policy-oriented students of politics in the United States. Political science was publicly criticized in the wake of the events of September 11, 2001, for being too concerned with the often esoteric debates within the discipline and for not focusing enough on generating and disseminating real-world relevant information and analysis that could better inform the public and improve policymaking. This followed a similar critique a
decade earlier following the sudden and unpredicted collapse of communism that caught most political scientists, let alone the general public, off guard. In turn, these public criticisms struck many political scientists as ironic given the common feeling in the discipline that scholars of the Middle East and the former Soviet bloc have always been too close to policy issues and too far from disciplinary concerns. Nonetheless, the visibility and trenchant nature of post– Cold War and post-9/11 attacks on political science laid bare an important tension inside the discipline between academic rigor and policy relevance.The leaders of the discipline invariably present a motherhood-and-apple-pie public face, saying that rigor and relevance are complementary, not conflicting, goals and that the discipline supports both in equal measure. There is little denying, however, that many political scientists, and the discipline as a profession, value academic rigor over policy relevance.This is born out in what gets published in the major journals and book series, who gets the best jobs and the biggest promotions in the political science job market, and, less formally, in who is held in the highest esteem by their peers. The problem of relevance has its roots in a larger question of scholarship: the creation of knowledge and the contexts of discovery. It is not just a problem for disciplines that seek scientific rigor. It is a problem for all scholarly disciplines that want to push the knowledge envelope. What makes political science particular in this respect is not that it seeks rigor over relevance, it is that its topic is especially practical in the Aristotelian sense. Thus, the discipline’s desire to be as scientific as possible—against a backdrop in which most people in the world feel they already have some understanding of the politics around them—creates a serious tension between rigor and relevance. Political scientists are committed to generalization over specificity in the objects of their analysis and to explaining the broadest possible range of phenomena with the fewest possible explanatory variables. Put simply, parsimonious generalization is the discipline’s gold standard. An example is Barrington Moore’s infamous dictum (and, before him, Aristotle): no middle class, no democracy. This approach also necessarily entails focusing on independent variables—in this case, the presence or absence of an effective middle class—more than on dependent variables—whether or not a country transitions into a stable democracy. The contrast with a discipline such as history that embraces the idiosyncratic and the fine-grained is stark. The general public is often fascinated by the works of historians precisely because of their complexity and subtlety but frustrated by the abstractions of political science. Consider perhaps the closest political scientists have come to a scientific law of politics—Maurice Duverger’s thesis that countries with winner-take-all election systems such as the United Kingdom and the United States will have only two political parties. The theoretical reasoning behind Duverger’s law is elegant. Voters know that supporting third parties that cannot win an election means wasting their votes, so rational voters would not vote for third parties even if they more
lxiv Introduction closely match the voters’ policy preferences than the existing two parties. Knowing this, politicians who might be tempted to form third parties do not do so, preferring to stay members of the existing parties and working to broaden their electoral appeal. In equilibrium, therefore, the United States and Great Britain should have only two major and enduring political parties—as has been the case for the preponderance of their histories as electoral democracies. But there are some stunning exceptions to Duverger’s law that have had major real-world consequences. Democrat Bill Clinton was elected U.S. president in 1992 because a third-party candidate, Ross Perot, ran and ran very well, winning almost 20 percent of the vote and taking more votes from Republican George H. W. Bush than from Clinton. This allowed Clinton to win the White House on not much more than 40 percent of the vote. In Great Britain, Margaret Thatcher won a landslide re-election in 1983 on an even lower vote share because a new party, the Liberal Democrats (LibDems), won more than a quarter of the vote and took more votes from the Labour opposition than from Thatcher’s Conservatives. Both elections not only violated Duverger’s law, they also violated the normal understanding of majority rule. The elections also resulted in long-lived governments that had far-reaching consequences not only for the United Kingdom and United States but also for the world. Had George H.W. Bush been re-elected in 1992 or had Thatcher been defeated in 1983, the world we live in might be quite different today. Do these exceptions, so important in the real world, make Duverger’s law much less relevant if not invalidated? Journalists and historians might well say yes. They might also then ask rhetorically: If political science cannot deliver on its scientific aspirations here on the terrain the discipline itself considers most favorable, what hope does the science of politics have in explaining more complex phenomena such as political change in nondemocracies or decisions about war or terrorism? Many political scientists would demur, however. They would say that the 1992 American and 1983 British elections are wholly consistent with Duverger’s logic, exceptions that prove the rule. Third parties cannot hope to win in first-pastthe-post elections. The folly of Perot and the Liberal Demo crats was exposed, and third parties receded in subsequent elections (until 2010 in Britain, with the jury still out at the time of writing as to whether the country will revert back to hewing closer to two parties in the future or change the electoral system to accommodate third parties like the LibDems). There are two lessons to learn from this simple example. First, it is actually not a fair criticism to say that political scientists do not concentrate on phenomena of real-world relevance. In fact, the most important work in the discipline is invariably focused on questions that historians, journalists, governments, and citizens would agree are the most important to the operation of the real world—how democracy works, how political transitions work, and how countries interact with each other. Second, political scientists do tend to value parsimonious generalization more highly than do journalists and the public. As a discipline with scientific aspirations that are frequently
quite high, it is entirely appropriate that political science seek to generate lawlike generalizations. It is equally important, however, that the discipline take seriously the exception as well as the rule—either to stimulate further scientific inquiry or to focus attention on important outcomes that do not rest easily within accepted theoretical models. Put differently, political scientists are right to analyze the most important political phenomena with the highest level of rigor they can apply with a view to achieving the highest degree of generalization they can. They just need to be aware that this is not the only way to study politics. This leads to another general comment on the rigorrelevance debate. The closer political scientists get to the real world of politics, the less important developing lawlike generalization becomes and the more the political scientists come to resemble historians focused on specific outcomes and interested in explaining them as thoroughly as possible. This is clearest in the United States, the country with the world’s largest collection of professional political scientists. Here there is a clear division of labor between academic teaching and research taking place in universities and colleges and policyrelevant analysis being done in think tanks. Political scientists in policy positions (including former U.S. secretaries of state Madeleine Albright and Condoleezza Rice) have become common enough to warrant a renewed attention to their role in the discipline, harking back to the debates over the origins of the discipline itself and to the concerns of a famous political scientist who became president: Woodrow Wilson. Specialization is less feasible in smaller countries with fewer political scientists. As a result, the boundaries between academic political science and think tank political science tend to be more blurred outside the United States than within its borders. This, among other things, helps explain why there is less commitment to the “science” of politics outside the United States than in it. British governments, for example, still tend to draw heavily on Oxbridge and the University of London for policy advice, whereas U.S. administrations rely much more heavily on think tank expertise. For a list of articles related to these topics, the reader should see the following Thematic Table of Contents headings: Political Change; Public Policy; and Representation and Electoral Systems.
FRONTIERS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE RESEARCH The rigor-relevance divide is a real one, but it is also true that some of the most politically and policy-relevant work in political science is being done as a result of recent methodological and analytical advances using new tools and data from multiple sources. Field experiments now inform the work of the World Bank and major foundations in their efforts to alleviate poverty. Game theory has long influenced security decisions, but in some of its new guises it may have useful consequences for a wider range of problems. Ethnographic, historical, and qualitative data more generally are being used to test major propositions in political science and enrich policymaking.
Introduction lxv Solid research design requires reliance on appropriate concepts for the problem and subjection of propositions to tests that determine their validity, the scope of their generalizability, and the extent to which they can illuminate other problems and domains. Some of the most exciting contemporary political science research combines solid research design with substantively interesting questions. A casual overview of titles in recent issues of the Annual Review of Political Science (ARPS), which is a good source for recent developments in the study of politics, suggests that the subfield of international relations, for instance, is focused on enduring issues involving the causes and consequences of conflict and, more recently, on postconflict reconstruction. Titles like “The Politics of Effective Foreign Aid,” “Rationalist Approaches to Conflict Prevention and Resolution,” “The Prosecution of Human Rights Violations,” “Treaty Compliance and Violation,” “Domestic Terrorism: The Hidden Side of Political Violence,” and “Bargaining Failures and Civil War” make this clear. Comparative politics emphasizes accountability, which spans a range of topics from the political economy of development and democratization to how electoral and political institutions affect the ability of voters to control politicians. Again, ARPS article titles suggest the richness of the field: “Parliamentary Control of Coalition Governments,” “Representation and Accountability in Cities,” “Accountability in Coalition Governments,” “Political Order and One-Party Rule,” “Legislative Obstructionism,” “Variation in Institutional Strength,” “Quality of Government: What You Get,” “Democratization and Economic Globalization,” “Redistricting: Reading Between the Lines,” “Negative Campaigning,” and “Elections Under Authoritarianism,” to name a representative sample of work. Within the field both the impacts of real-world developments like the recent rise in inequality in many nations (“Origins and Persistence of Economic Inequality,” “The Politics of Inequality in America: A Political Economy Framework,” and “The Institutional Origins of Inequality in Sub-Saharan Africa”) can be seen, as well as the impact of newly available tools to assist in, for instance, the analysis of geography (“The Geographic Distribution of Political Preferences,” “Immigration and Social Policy in the United States,” and “Regionalism”). Issues of race and gender also appear frequently, as do other subjects that reflect even newer developments in the discipline. The frontier of political science research, however, is not wholly driven by substantive concerns. Progress also reflects the interdependent development of theory, evidence, and tools. Political science as a discipline has always been selfconscious about its methods, and the frontier includes both endless diversification and new forms of reintegration of the discipline’s theoretical and methodological toolkit. Three articles from a recent Annual Review of Political Science (volume 13, 2010) illustrate how persistent methodological divides are being overcome at the same time that new sources of data are being used. In a piece on the new political history, Julien Zelizer emphasizes what political science can learn from the
historical research on the nineteenth century or on the rise of conservatism. Evan Lieberman stresses explicit means to overcome the qualitative-quantitative divide by using historical data for purposes of testing political science theory. Lisa Wedeen, who relies on ethnographic field work, argues that “interpretive social science does not have to forswear generalizations or causal explanations” and that “ethnographic methods can be used in the service of establishing them.” Historical and ethnographic data and analysis are sweeping political science, but so are other types of information.William Butz and Barbara Toomey (2006) identify six areas of innovation in data and tools that are pushing at the frontiers of social sciences: laboratory and field experimentation, international replication, longitudinal data, improved statistical methods, and (beginning to cross disciplinary boundaries into political science) geographic information tools, and biosocial science. For a list of articles related to these topics, the reader should see the following Thematic Table of Contents heading: Qualitative/Quantitative Methods. The spread of experimental methods for examining causal effects is particularly noteworthy. Experiments are no longer just about game theory, risk and decision science, and social psychology, as Butz and Toomey put it, but now “the objects of inquiry span all the social sciences, including the origins and impacts of ethnic conflict, group and team behavior in organizations, and the nature and consequences of trust and reciprocity in interpersonal and international relations.” Equally striking is the development of harmonized cross-sectional survey data, critical for distinguishing among local, regional, and universal phenomena. In political science such studies include the International Social Survey Program (ISSP) and the World Values Survey, respectively, 43- and 81-country repeated compendiums of social and political issues and values, as well as several comparative election studies and the Luxembourg Income Study, with its exceptionally fine-grained household income and spending data. At the same time it has become more common to develop longitudinal surveys, which either collect information about the same persons (observations) over many years or many times over shorter periods. Such panel studies can document the importance of accumulated life experience as well as study things like campaigns in which individual responses, treatments (like campaigning), and controls (for example, polls) interact continuously over time. These experimental and longitudinal developments are not independent of the growth of Internet surveys, which can reach around the world to seemingly endless respondents who want to participate. Of course, this creates new problems: statisticians face the challenge of dealing with possible bias from respondent self-selection. At the same time, these developments cross subfield boundaries. For example, worldwide data increase the integration of geographic information science with, for example, international relations, in which political geography affects international conflict and cooperation, globalization, international commerce, and democratization.These are just some of the ways in which political science is, as said earlier, both specialized and interactive and growing
lxvi Introduction and changing. Perhaps the online edition of this encyclopedia will increasingly have articles on the impact of biology and neuroscience, which could, as Butz and Toomey put it, “[A]lter understandings about sexual orientation, criminal responsibility, prospects for marriage as a social institution, and even the nature of moral obligation.”
CONCLUSION This short discussion of the discipline of political science—its history, its current subfields and methods, and its emerging subfields, modes of analysis, and testing procedures—reveals the wide range of questions and concerns that characterize the field. Transforming the huge number of concepts and terms into an encyclopedia is no easy task, especially given our desire to make it useful to students, specialists, and the interested policymaker, among others. By necessity, the most attention has been focused on core ideas and controversies, but, as this essay suggests, political science is ever evolving. It also is centrifugal. In an effort to become more like a science, some practitioners are on the cutting edge of research methods. In an effort to provide deeper understanding of enduring problems, some scholars merge political analysis with what can be learned from philosophy, history, anthropology, and psychology. In an effort to become relevant, some use the best tools at hand to focus on immediate political problems. Although many of the frontier concerns of political science may seem over the horizon, this encyclopedia offers useful tools for becoming familiar with an increasingly dynamic field of political science. Its capacity to respond to change with its online edition marks it as useful well into the future. JAMES E. ALT SIMONE CHAMBERS GEOFFREY GARRETT MARGARET LEVI PAULA D. MCCLAIN Associate Editors
REFERENCES Adcock, Robert, and Mark Bevir. “The History of Political Science.” Political Studies Review 3 (2005): 1–16. Andrews, John. A Comparative View of the French and English Nations, in Their Manners, Politics and Literature. London: printed for T. Longman, and G. G. J. and J. Robinson, 1785. Bachrach, Peter, and Morton S. Baratz. “Two Faces of Power.” American Political Science Review 56, 4 (1962): 947–952. ———. “Decisions and Nondecisions: An Analytical Framework.” American Political Science Review 57, 3 (1963): 632–642. Bentley, Arthur. The Process of Government: A Study of Social Pressures. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1908. Boix, Carles, and Susan C. Stokes. “Overview of Comparative Politics.” In Robert E. Goodin, ed. The Oxford Handbook of Political Science. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2007. Brown, Bernard E., and Roy C. Macridis. Comparative Politics: Notes and Readings. New York: Macmillan, 1961.
Bryce, James. The American Commonwealth. London and New York: Macmillan, 1888. Butz, William P., and Barbara Boyle Torrey. “Some Frontiers in Social Science.” Science 312, 5782 (2006): 1898–1900. Corwin, Edwin S. John Marshall and the Constitution: A Chronicle of the Supreme Court. Toronto: Glasgow, Brook, 1919. ———. The Constitution and What It Means Today. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1920. Crick, Bernard. The American Science of Politics: Its Origins and Conditions. Berkeley: California University Press, 1959. Dahl, Robert A. Who Governs? Democracy and Power in an American City. New Haven:Yale University Press, 1961. Deutsch, Morton, and Catarina Kinnvall. “What is Political Psychology?” In K. Monroe, ed. Political Psychology. Mahwah, N.J.: Erlbaum, 2002. Dryzek, John S., Bonnie Honig, and Anne Phillips. “Overview of Political Theory.” In Robert Goodin, ed. The Oxford Handbook of Political Science. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2007. Farr, James. “The History of Political Science.” American Journal of Political Science 32, 4 (November 1988): 1175–1195. Katznelson, Ira, and Helen V. Milner, eds. Political Science:The State of the Discipline. Centennial Edition. New York: W. W. Norton and Company, and Washington, D.C.: American Political Science Association, 2002, 1–26. Kaufman-Osborn, Timothy V. “Dividing the Domain of Political Science: On the Fetishm of Subfield.” Polity 38, 1 (January 2006): 41–71. Kettl, Donald F. “Public Administration: The State of the Field.” In Ada Finifter, ed. Political Science:The State of the Discipline II. Washington, D.C.: American Political Science Association, 1993, 407–428. Kymlicka, Will. Contemporary Political Philosophy: An Introduction. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2002. Lasswell, Harold D. World Politics and Personal Insecurity. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1935. Lieberman, Evan S. “Bridging the Qualitative-Quantitative Divide: Best Practices in the Development of Historically Oriented Replication Databases.” Annual Review of Political Science 13 (2010): 37–59. Lukes, Steven. Power: A Radical View. London: Macmillan, 1974. Merriam, Charles E. New Aspect of Politics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1925. Rawls, John. A Theory of Justice. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1971. Shapiro, Martin, and Ada Finifter, eds. “Public Law and Judicial Politics.” In Political Science:The State of the Discipline II. Washington, D.C: American Political Science Association, 1993, 363–381. Wedeen, Lisa. “Reflections on Ethnographic Work in Political Science.” Annual Review of Political Science 13 (2010): 255–272. Wilson, Woodrow. Congressional Government: A Study in American Politics. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1885. Zelizer, Julian E. “What Political Science Can Learn from the New Political History.” Annual Review of Political Science 13 (2010): 25–36. Zimmern, Alfred. The Study of International Relations. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1931.
NOTES 1. The initial interest took place in the decades between the first and second world wars, according to Deutsch and Kinnvall; for others its origins are in the 1940s. Serious psychological research did not occur until World War II, however. 2. This is the name of a movement in American political science to encourage more openness in response to what its members perceived as a hegemony of rational choice theory and a general narrowing of questions and scope in the discipline. 3. See, for example, Dahl 1961, Lukes 1974, and Bachrach and Baratz 1962, 1963.
A Abortion and Politics By the early twenty-first century, abortion has come to be one of the most heated political issues in the world. In many Western nations, abortion is a divisive issue between the political left and the political right, with those on the left supporting the rights of the mother to control her reproductive life. Abortion opponents, on the other hand, label abortion as murder, often insisting that the rights of the unborn child begin at the moment of conception. An estimated fifty million abortions are performed yearly in various parts of the world, and at least twenty million of those are considered illegal. Around one-half of all abortions are performed under conditions detrimental to the mother’s health, and many lead to chronic health problems, loss of fertility, and a woman’s loss of life. In countries where abortion laws are the most restrictive, approximately one-fourth of all pregnancies are illegally terminated.
HISTORY Until the turn of the nineteenth century, abortion before quickening—the point at which the mother feels the baby move—was generally legal in the United States and Europe. Quickening was generally believed to occur around the twelfth week of pregnancy. The use of quickening as the point of viability could be traced back to the ancient Greeks and Romans. Historically, some abortions were performed with the assistance of friends, family members, midwives, doctors, or apothecaries. Self-induced abortions, which had a low success rate, were attempted through a variety of methods that included applications of herbs and ointments to the skin, vigorous internal or external massage, insertion of foreign objects, stomach binding, running, lifting, leaping, excessive exercise, starving, bleeding, blistering, hot and cold baths, emotional distress, fretting, excessive laughing, purging, and vomiting. If all other methods failed, women sometimes resorted to infanticide. By the mid-nineteenth century, the male-dominated medical profession had co-opted the birthing process. In the United States, the American Medical Association, founded in 1847, led the campaign to make abortion illegal. The move sent desperate women underground, and the number of self-induced and “back alley” abortions increased. Over time, outlawing abortion evolved into outlawing all methods of birth control. The issue of abortion returned to the front burner in the mid-twentieth century when scores of babies with massive
deformities were born to mothers who had contracted German measles or taken the tranquilizer drug thalidomide. Consequently, many countries passed laws legalizing abortions. In 1994, the United Nations Conference on Population and Development signaled a global shift toward improving the quality of life for women and produced new policies on family planning and abortion around the world.
THE UNITED STATES Birth control was outlawed in a number of states until the 1960s, when the second wave of the feminist movement swelled in response to the publication of Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique in 1963, and the U.S. Supreme Court held in Griswold v. Connecticut, 381 U.S. 479 (1965), that a constitutional right to privacy guaranteed married couples access to birth control. This right was extended to single couples in Eisenstadt v. Baird, 405 U.S. 438 (1972). Building on the right to privacy, Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973), confirmed the right to privacy. In Roe, Justice Harry Blackmun developed the trimester method of determining a timetable for legal abortions based on the development of the fetus. Abortions were generally legal in the first trimester but restricted in the second and third trimesters. The rise of conservatism in the 1980s added heat to the abortion debate. Under presidents Ronald Reagan and George H.W. Bush, views on abortion became a litmus test for appointment to the Supreme Court. Congress began attaching abortion riders to unrelated bills and regularly renewed the Hyde Amendment of 1976, which banned Medicaid-financed abortions. This antiabortion stance had grave consequences for women in developing nations because Congress appropriated foreign aid with restrictions that limited access to family planning as well as to abortion. After a respite from abortion restrictions in foreign aid under Bill Clinton, George W. Bush renewed them in 2001. Although the Supreme Court has continued to narrowly uphold Roe v. Wade, states were given authority to limit access to abortion in Webster v. Reproductive Health Services, 492 U.S. 490 (1989), and Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvania v. Casey, 505 U.S. 833 (1992). One of the most controversial aspects of the abortion battle has been the conflict between abortionist opponents, who claim that the right to protest outside abortion clinics is guaranteed by the First Amendment, and prochoice advocates, who object to practices that limit entry to family planning
1
2 Abortion and Politics and abortion clinics. After an increase in violence and the murder of two abortion-providing physicians, the Supreme Court held in NOW v. Scheidler, 510 U.S. 249 (1994), that states could pass laws designed to deter violence with increased fines and punishment. As a result of violence and ongoing controversy, 87 percent of all counties in the United States have been left without abortion services. The appointment of John Roberts as chief justice of the Supreme Court in 2005 raised conservative hopes that Roe v. Wade would eventually be overturned.
ASIA In countries such as China and India, abortion is viewed as an acceptable means of controlling exploding populations. Both countries have liberal abortion policies, and women are more likely to abort female fetuses. Most Chinese women are restricted by the government’s one-child policy. As of 2005, the male to female birth ratio in China was 120 boys for every 100 girls, equating to an estimated thirty-two million more boy than girls. India’s birth ratio as of 2001 was 108 boys for every 100 girls. In Asian cultures, males are traditionally perceived as more valuable because they are honor bound to take care of aging parents. Such traditional thinking lingers despite modern lifestyle changes. Abortions are performed less often in developing countries than in developed countries because high infant mortality rates and a need for cheap labor in the agricultural sector result in high fertility rates. In East Timor, for example, the poorest country in the world, with a per capita income of only US$400, the infant mortality rate is 45.89 children per one thousand live births and the fertility rate is 7.8 children per woman. In comparison, the infant mortality rate in the United Kingdom is 4.85 per one thousand live births and the fertility rate is 1.9 births per woman. In Japan, the infant mortality rate is 2.79 children per one thousand live births, with a fertility rate of 1.34 per woman.
EUROPE In the transition countries of eastern Europe, former Soviet bloc nations are struggling economically as they attempt to reinvent themselves. Abortion on demand was prevalent under socialism because it was believed to increase the productivity of women. However, some restrictions have now been instituted, in part because of the influence of the Catholic Church. In Poland, for instance, the church was successful in overturning liberal abortion laws and removing sex education from classrooms in 1993. Three years later sex education was reintroduced, and some restrictions on abortion were removed. Antiabortion forces within the church have been most successful in Ireland, where all abortions are illegal. Conversely, in France, where more than 80 percent of the population is Catholic, abortion rights have been guaranteed since 1974. Elsewhere in Europe, abortions are legal up to the twelfth week of pregnancy in Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, Norway, Slovakia, Sweden, and Russia. Limited access to abortion is available in Britain, Finland, Hungary, Portugal, Spain, and Switzerland.
AFRICA AND THE MIDDLE EAST While Cape Verde, South Africa, and Tunisia allow unrestricted abortions, most other African nations retain restrictive and old colonial laws, as well as ineffective family planning, both of which contribute to high numbers of abortions. According to the World Health Organization, an estimated 4.2 million African women seek unsafe abortions each year, with thirty thousand maternal deaths resulting. African women suffer disproportionately from unsafe abortion practices. While 10 percent of the world’s abortions occur in Africa each year, its women comprise half of the resultant deaths. In countries where abortion is legal, maternal death rates are much smaller. For instance, South Africa’s number of deaths due to unsafe abortions fell by 90 percent from 1984 to 2001, after that country legalized abortion. Eighty percent of the countries in North Africa and the Middle East outlaw abortion in some fashion: 21 percent prohibit abortion under all circumstances, 55 percent prohibit abortion except to save the woman’s life, and 24 percent allow abortion to preserve the woman’s physical or mental health. The restrictive laws and, in many cases, lack of effective family planning programs contribute to the number of unsafe abortions and related deaths in this region. In 1992, the Syrian Family Planning Association and International Planned Parenthood Federation’s Arab World Regional Office hosted a regional conference on unsafe abortion and sexual health. The attendees agreed that unsafe abortion was a major public health problem throughout the region. They determined the need to review policies and provide better family planning. Lack of effective family planning services, including the availability of contraception, contributes to higher rates of abortion. For instance, abortions in Turkey decreased as the availability of family planning programs increased. Similarly, Tunisia legalized abortion for all women in 1973. Since then, the number of unsafe abortions has drastically decreased, as have the number of maternal deaths. For every one thousand women of reproductive age in 1990, eleven received abortions. By 2003, this number had dropped to seven out of every one thousand women of reproductive years. See also Health Care Policy; Law and Society; Multiple Streams Theory, Privacy Rights; Social Policy. . . . . . . . . . . . . ELIZABETH RHOLETTER PURDY BIBLIOGRAPHY Dabash, Rasha, and Farzaneh Roudi-Fahimi. “Abortion in the Middle East and North Africa.” Washington, D.C.: Population Reference Bureau, 2008. www.prb.org/pdf08/MENAabortion.pdf. Guilmoto, Christophe Z. Characteristics of Sex-Ratio Imbalance in India, and Future Scenarios. Report presented at the 4th Asia Pacific Conference on Reproductive and Sexual Health and Rights, Hyderabad, India, October 2007. Knudsen, Lara M. Reproductive Rights in a Global Context. Nashville, Tenn: Vanderbilt University Press, 2006. Neft, Naomi, and Ann D. Levine. Where Women Stand: An International Report on the Status of Women in 140 Countries, 1997–1998. New York: Random House, 1997.
Absolutism 3 Reagan, Leslie J. When Abortion Was a Crime:Women, Medicine, and Law in the United States, 1867–1973. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997. Riddle, John M. Contraception and Abortion: From the Ancient World to the Renaissance. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1992. Sanger, Alexander. Beyond Choice: Reproductive Freedom in the 21st Century. New York: Public Affairs, 2004. Stalcup, Brenda, ed. Women’s Suffrage. San Diego: Greenwood, 2000. Stetson, Dorothy McBride, ed. Abortion Politics,Women’s Movements, and the Democratic State. New York: Oxford, 2001. “Unsafe Abortion the Scourge of African Women.” IRIN News, January 10, 2010, www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=58537. World Health Organization. Unsafe Abortion and Associated Mortality in 2003. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2007. Zhu, Wai Xing, Li Lu, and Therese Hesketh. “China’s Excess Males, Sex Selective Abortion, and One Child Policy: Analysis of Data from 2005 National Intercensus Survey.” London: BMJ, April 2009, www.bmj.com/ cgi/reprint/338/apr09_2/b1211.pdf.
Absentee Voting Absentee voting is a process that provides people the opportunity to cast a ballot even if they are unwilling or unable to appear at a polling station. Absentee voting is common in developed democracies, such as the United States, Japan, and the nations of western Europe. A variety of procedures can be used in absentee voting, including early voting, voting by mail, and casting ballots by fax or over the Internet. For instance, in the United States, members of the military who are deployed outside of their home regions are given absentee ballots that may be mailed without postage to their precincts, while in the United Kingdom, postal ballots are freely given on request. In addition, voters in countries that allow absentee balloting may cast their votes up to six weeks prior to an election. One of the principal challenges in absentee voting is ensuring the secrecy of the ballot and preventing fraud. Consequently, most countries require that the authenticity of absentee ballots be certified by witnesses or electoral officials. This form of voting is recognized as a means to increase voter turnout and prevent disenfranchisement of citizens who physically cannot appear at a polling station. See also Disenfranchisement; Voting Procedures; Voting Rights and Suffrage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TOM LANSFORD
Absolutism Absolutism is a historical term for a form of government in which the ruler is an absolute authority, unrestricted by any other institution, such as churches, estates, a constitution, laws, or opposition. The Reformation of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries caused erosion of monarchical power and the rise of libertarian democratic sentiment in feudal Europe. Political philosophers of the period reacted by introducing concepts of the natural law or the divine right of kings. Although contradictory, both concepts claimed that unquestionable rule by a single person was the best form of government. According to Thomas Hobbes, human beings ceded authority to a ruler
in exchange for security, which kept society together. JacquesBenigne Bossuet argued that God vested the monarch with the right to rule in order to protect society and that rebelling against the monarch would mean challenging God. Absolutism is characterized by the end of feudal partitioning, unification and centralization of the state, rise of professional standing armies and professional bureaucracies, and the codification of state laws. The general rise of state power was demonstrated by expensive lifestyles of absolute monarchs who identified with the state (“L’État c’est moi” claimed Louis XIV of France). Absolutist monarchs attempted to intervene personally in every area; welfare of the state was therefore determined by their (in)competence. Absolutist monarchs held nobility under political control by keeping them permanently at luxurious courts and arbitrarily distributing payable honorary duties and titles, while noble estates were managed by exploitative officials.The enormous increase in state expenses was addressed by modernization of tax systems and mercantilism that favored the emerging bourgeoisie. Monarchs considered absolute rulers include Louis XIII (reigned 1610–1643) and Louis XIV of France (r. 1643–1715), Ivan the Terrible (r. 1547–1584) and Peter the Great of Russia (r. 1682–1725), Leopold I of Austria (r. as Holy Roman Emperor 1658–1705), and Charles XI (r. 1660–1697) and Charles XII of Sweden (r. 1697–1718). Absolutism went through several historical stages, such as early absolutism, confessional absolutism, court absolutism, and Enlightened absolutism. Frederick I of Prussia (r. 1740–1786), the Hapsburg emperors of Austria (Marie-Therèse, r. 1740– 1780, and her son Joseph II, r. 1780–1790), and Catherine the Great of Russia (r. 1762–1796) ruled as absolute monarchs in eastern Europe while implementing reforms based on Enlightenment ideas. Enlightened absolutism was commonly justified as a provider of better living conditions for its subjects. Following bourgeois revolutions in America and France, absolutism and constitutionalism became principal opposing political concepts in the West. The Jacobin terror during the French Revolution (1789–1799) demonstrated that political freedom was threatened also by democratic absolutism. To early-nineteenth-century rightist political thinkers, the French Revolution, instead of abolishing absolutism, was therefore rather a struggle between the monarch and the people over sovereignty, and French Republicanism, Napoleon’s imperialism, and constitutionalism were merely forms of absolutism. Mid-nineteenth-century liberals considered the rising proletariat as another dangerous form of absolutism and argued against radicals’ demand of universal suffrage. By 1848, a general consensus on constitutionalism was reached, and the method of its implementation became the principal matter of political controversy. While the term absolutism remained a commonly used pejorative, especially in France and England, in Germany the Hegelian Idealism relegated it to historiography from the 1830s on. In the early twentieth century, research on absolutism as a historical concept was conceived in contemporary terms. Historians’ views on the extent of absolutism among European
4 Academic Freedom monarchs vary. Some argue that a considerable number of monarchs achieved absolutist control over their states. Others question the very existence of absolutism, arguing that most absolutist monarchs had comparable power over their subjects to any other rulers, and they point to the gap between the absolutist rhetoric and the reality, especially to many absolutist monarchs’ incapability to successfully address their constant financial difficulties. See also Authority; Monarchy;Tyranny, Classical. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CIRILA TOPLAK BIBLIOGRAPH Y Blänkner, Reinhard. “Absolutismus” und “moderner Staat”: Eine begriffsgeschichtliche Studie zur Geschichtswissenschaft und zur politischen Theorie in Deutschland 1830 bis 1890. Göttingen, Germany:Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1993. Böing, Günther, ed. Die Weltgeschichte. Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany: Herder, 1971. Davies, Norman. Europe, a History. London: Pimlico, 1997. James, Alan. The Origins of French Absolutism, 1598–1661. New York: Pearson Longman, 2006. Treasure, Geoffrey, and Russell Richards. The Making of Modern Europe: 1648–1780. New York: Routledge, 2003.
Academic Freedom Academic freedom refers primarily to the rights of faculty and students to provide instruction and inquiry in academic institutions without restrictions on their analysis or fear of negative consequences. Although the term is more frequently applied to higher education, it is used also in public schooling, though it is often controversial in this context.
ORIGINS AND ESSENCE OF ACADEMIC FREEDOM Academic freedom developed in the Middle Ages with the maturation of European universities, which during this time experienced exceptional freedom because the philosopher, scholar, and student aimed to be consecrated to the service of truth, and such freedom was regarded as divine sanction. By the 1800s, the principles of Lehrfreiheit (freedom of inquiry), Lernfreibeit (freedom to learn), and Freiheit der Wissenschaft (conduct research) had arisen in German universities, which eventually influenced what constitutes a genuine research university in the United States. Experienced in varying degrees worldwide, academic freedom has been based throughout its history on the belief that it is beneficial to society for truth to be pursued. Academic freedom means typically that faculty members of an institution possess the prerogative of communication, expression, inquiry, and study. In American higher education, for instance, it has been primarily professors who have defended the right to pursue—without concern about being dismissed from their position—knowledge and truth through their publications, research, and teaching. Throughout the world, this concept also has been extended to students who require the right to question faculty propositions without concerns of negative repercussion.
ENSHRINING FREEDOM IN ACADEMIC INSTITUTIONS Higher education institutions have defended their right to be the final arbitrators in making conclusive decisions concerning the content and method of both the research and teaching that engages students. Elementary and secondary teachers, too, have employed the term academic freedom for their particular rights, especially during the 1960s, to determine the content of courses taught and select departmental curricula. It is also common for educators and students to seek the freedom to engage in various political and social activities. Academic freedom for university professors necessitates the institutional component of tenure, the acknowledgement of the right of a teacher to an appointment based on demonstration of competence. The appointment is continuous unless incompetence, moral turpitude, or neglect is demonstrated, and is integral to the institution as a whole because it sustains the principles of “free search for truth and its free exposition” through professional experience (e.g., an educator may teach without fear of penalty for pursuing ideas that conflict with the institution or general society). Although academic freedom is varied in practice and theory worldwide, it is the general expectation in Western society and is regarded positively in developing countries of Africa, the Far East, and the Middle East. For example, the German Constitution specifically grants academic freedom, as “art and science, research and teaching are free. Freedom of teaching does not absolve from loyalty to the constitution.” The institutional component to academic freedom in the United States was famously expressed in 1957 when Justice Felix Frankfurter established a foundation for academic freedom in the United States. Based on a statement of the Open Universities in South Africa, Justice Frankfurter opined, It is the business of a university to provide that atmosphere which is most conducive to speculation, experiment, and creation. It is an atmosphere in which there prevail “the four essential freedoms” of a university—to determine for itself on academic grounds who may teach, what may be taught, how it shall be taught, and who may be admitted to study” (Sweezy v. New Hampshire, 354 U.S. 234 [1957]). As the “common good” of the institution of higher learning “depends upon the free search for truth and its free exposition,” the individual component of academic freedom encompasses the entitlements of both teacher and student (although to a lesser extent for the latter).
IMPORTANT CHARTERS FOR ACADEMIC FREEDOM “The 1940 Statement of Principles on Academic Freedom and Tenure” (drafted and approved by the Association of American Colleges and Universities) established three aspects of academic freedom for an institution to ensure in “fulfilling its obligations to its students and to society”: (1) “the teacher is entitled to full freedom in research and in the publication of the results,” (2) “the teacher is entitled to freedom in the
Accountability 5 classroom in discussing his/her subject,” and (3) when a professor “writes as a citizen, he/she should be free from institutional censorship or discipline” (American Association of University Professors, 3). Essentially the institutional and individual components should function harmoniously, as institutions should provide an atmosphere of complete freedom for educators to conduct research and publish the conclusions, as long as their performance is sufficient in other academic responsibilities. While without this academic freedom it can be argued that educators are unable to fulfill their service of pursuing and communicating truth, teachers should, however, be careful to avoid discussion of controversial matters unrelated to the subject at hand. “The 1940 Statement of Principles” did not demand religious institutions to implement this form of academic freedom, as “limitations of academic freedom because of religious or other aims of the institution should be clearly stated in writing at the time of the appointment.” The statement is perhaps intentionally ambiguous in assuming that certain limitations would exist, seeking to regulate these limitations through the obligation of honest and immediate disclosure. As granted by the limitations clause, religious institutions would have liberty to implement their own principles of academic freedom. Religious institutions that require their faculty to sign statements of faith merely formalize a mode of voluntary association that develops naturally at other institutions where such requirements do not exist. Consequently, statements of faith intrinsically considered do not limit genuine academic freedom. Such declarations of academic freedom are prevalent worldwide. For example, “The Magna Charta Universitatum” of 1988, signed by Rectors of European Universities, states that, [T]he university is an autonomous institution at the heart of societies differently organized because of geography and historical heritage; it produces, examines, appraises and hands down culture by research and teaching. To meet the needs of the world around it, its research and teach must be morally and intellectually independent of all political authority and economic power (1). Originally signed by twenty-nine European countries, the 1999 Bologna Process reinforced the academic ideals laid out within the Magna Charta and has continued to gain popularity with forty-six participating countries. See also Education Policy; Education Policy, Higher; Freedom of Speech. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RON J. BIGALKE JR. BIBLIOGRAPH Y Aby, Stephen H., and James C. Kuhn IV, comps. Academic Freedom: A Guide to the Literature. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 2000. Alstyne, William W.Van, ed. Freedom and Tenure in the Academy. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1993. American Association of University Professors. “1940 Statement of Principles on Academic Freedom and Tenure with 1970 Interpretative Comments,” n.d., www.aaup.org/AAUP/pubsres/policydocs. Baade, Hans W., and Robinson O. Everett, eds. Academic Freedom:The Scholar’s Place in Modern Society. Dobbs Ferry, N.Y.: Oceana, 1964.
Beale, Howard K. A History of Freedom of Teaching in American Schools. New York: Scribner’s, 1941. Byse, Clark, and Louis Joughin. Tenure in American Higher Education. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1959. De George, Richard T. Academic Freedom and Tenure: Ethical Issues. Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1997. Hamilton, Neil W. Academic Ethics: Problems and Materials on Professional Conduct and Shared Governance. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2002. Hofstadter, Richard, and Walter P. Metzger. The Development of Academic Freedom in the United States. New York: Columbia University Press, 1955. Kirk, Russell. Academic Freedom: An Essay in Definition. Chicago: Henry Regnery, 1955. MacIver, Robert M. Academic Freedom in Our Time. New York: Columbia University Press, 1955. Magna Charta Observatory. “The Magna Charta Universitatum,” 1988, www .magna-charta.org/pdf/mc_pdf/mc_english.pdf. Pincoffs, Edmund L., ed. The Concept of Academic Freedom. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1972. “354 U.S. 234 (1957) Sweezy v. New Hampshire” Washington, D.C.: The Supreme Court Historical Society, n.d., www.supremecourthistory.org.
Accountability In political science, the term accountability refers to an actor’s acknowledgment and assumption of responsibilities specific to a role—including the responsibility to report and justify the consequences of actions taken within the scope of the role—and the existence of sanctions for failing to meet these responsibilities. A is therefore accountable to B when “A is obliged to inform B about A’s (past and future) actions and decisions, to justify them, and to suffer punishment in the case of eventual misconduct,” as political scientist Andreas Schedler noted in his 1999 article “Conceptualizing Accountability.” The concept of accountability thus entails monitoring of behavior, justification of behavior, and enforcement of good behavior. The monitoring and justification aspects of accountability constitute what is often referred to as answerability. Answerability involves the ability to ask actors about (1) what they have done and (2) why they have done so. In other words, there is an informational dimension as well as an argumentative dimension to answerability. Both dimensions of answerability require accurate information and are improved by transparency of actions. Accountability requires not only answerability for behavior but also enforcement of good behavior. To have accountability as well as answerability, there must also be institutions for enforcing good behavior that fulfills official responsibilities. Without some way of punishing bad behavior, government agents that shirk their responsibilities cannot be held to account. Political, public, or governmental accountability is the ability of citizens, societal actors, or other state actors to hold government officials and agents responsible for their actions in their official capacities. Successful institutions of governmental accountability specify the official duties of government agents, establish a sense of obligation in government agents to fulfill their responsibilities, and create incentives that motivate government officials to act in the public interest, punishing them when they pursue their own private interests at the expense of
6 Accountability the public interest and rewarding them to make pursuing the public interest in their own interests as well. Political accountability is, in essence, about the need and the ability to restrain the power of government. Some define political accountability to include only relationships in which public officials have a legal obligation to answer to those holding them accountable, and those holding public officials accountable have a legal right to impose sanctions. Others note that actors are empowered by either formal institutions or informal rules to sanction and reward government agents for their activities or performance.
THEORIES OF ACCOUNTABILITY Models of accountability are derived from two main bodies of theoretical literature: principal-agent theory and theories of moral responsibility. While the models highlight different factors in the process of holding actors accountable, they are not necessarily incompatible with each other. Principal-agent models of accountability posit relationships in which the principal (such as an employer or a voter) selects an agent (an employee, for example, or a local official) to choose actions that benefit the principal’s interest. The relationship between the principal and agent is conceptualized as a contractual relationship between two autonomous actors. Mutually agreed terms of the contract determine the responsibilities for which the principal holds the agent accountable. Whether the principal can actually hold the agent accountable depends on whether the principal has ways of enforcing the contract. Scholars have applied agency theory to model the conditions under which government agents might increase accountability by making their actions more observable to constituents: the implications of accountability as an equilibrium state, as well as a set of mechanisms used when accountability as an equilibrium fails and the consequences of successfully functioning sanctioning mechanisms when citizens have incorrect information. In contrast to principal-agent models of accountability that focus on issues of contract choice, information asymmetries, and mechanisms for dismissing and punishing agents, theories of moral responsibility and group solidarity focus on the ways in which groups and communities establish duties and obligations for their members. Expectations and standards established by the group determine the responsibilities for which groups hold members accountable. Moral responsibility models of accountability focus on internal feelings of obligation and duty that groups inculcate in their members. Accountability in these models conceptualizes actors as fulfilling their responsibilities in part because they feel duty-bound to do so. In addition to the negative social sanctions that groups can apply to discourage misbehavior, theories of moral responsibility also highlight positive external and internal rewards for fulfilling responsibilities, such as group expressions of gratitude to individuals, the awarding of social and moral standing, and internal feelings of pride and identification within individuals.
TYPES OF ACCOUNTABILITY One way to distinguish between different types of political or governmental accountability is to look at the different things
that government is held accountable for doing. For what kind of behavior are government actors being held accountable? Performance accountability, for example, refers to the ability of citizens, first, to observe whether the government is implementing its policies effectively and efficiently, and, second, to hold them to account for their behavior. Policy-making accountability, on the other hand, refers to the ability of citizens to ensure that government policies are representative and reflect the preferences of the population. A distinction can be made also between accountability for something and accountability to someone. Government accountability in a democratic system, for example, can either be conceptualized as the responsibility of government officials for representing majority preferences and implementing the government’s policies effectively, or conceptualized as the responsibility of government officials to answer for its behavior to citizens. Accountability also can be typologized in terms of who holds government actors accountable. In vertical accountability, citizens and societal actors such as civic groups, voluntary associations, and mass media seek to hold the government officials above them accountable. In horizontal accountability, agencies and offices within the state, such as auditing agencies, oversight commissions, or the legislative branch, oversee other branches or offices within government. A relatively new body of literature also discusses external accountability, or the role of international institutions in helping to hold national governments accountable for their performance and representation of public interests. Organizations such as the European Union, for example, can establish institutions that help eastern European countries to consolidate democracy and build rule of law by insulating parts of a new democracy’s weakly institutionalized legal system from domestic political interest groups. Scholarly attention to the accountability of powerful, international nongovernmental political actors such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund also has been increasing. These organizations command vast political and economic resources and have an enormous influence on the policies and actions of governments that receive resources from them. Their accountability remains, however, a matter of both academic and political debate. Within this debate are questions such as whether these organizations are or should be accountable to the governments that provide funding for their projects, to the governments that receive funding for development, or to the citizens of recipient countries whom these projects are intended to help.
INSTRUMENTS AND MECHANISMS OF ACCOUNTABILITY Principal-agent and moral responsibility models of governmental accountability identify several necessary functions for an effective system of accountability. Systems of governmental accountability should include instruments or mechanisms for all parties to agree upon and acknowledge the official responsibilities of government actors. It may also be important for these instruments to establish feelings of duty and
Accountability 7 obligation among government officials. Systems of government accountability should also include ways for obtaining accurate information about the behavior and performance of government actors, as well as ways of rewarding and punishing their behavior. Political systems vary widely in the type and strength of the institutions they have for ensuring governmental accountability. Institutions that are created to contribute to governmental accountability may not operate successfully or may function for purposes other than accountability. Elections, for example, are often considered a key element of accountability in democratic systems.Yet they may function as opportunities for citizens to choose a “good type” of political leader who feels morally responsible for fulfilling official duties, one who will act on behalf of voters regardless of incentives for reelection. Moreover, instruments and mechanisms for establishing obligation, providing information, and punishing misbehavior can contribute to systems of governmental accountability without being sufficient for ensuring accountability.
BUREAUCRATIC INSTITUTIONS OF ACCOUNTABILITY One category of institutions that contribute to accountability are bureaucratic or administrative institutions, such as performance targets and auditing offices, that enable one set of government actors to monitor and sanction another set. Institutions such as bureaucratic performance reviews at fixed intervals are formal, top-down mechanisms involving hierarchical authority. “Modern officialdom” is characterized by the “supervision of lower offices by the higher ones.” Bureaucratic institutions of meritocratic selection and promotion, training programs, and selective recruitment from particular universities or elite social groups also can lead to informal bureaucratic norms emphasizing loyalty and collective identity, which help to foster a sense of duty among bureaucrats to put collective goals above individual ones. Other administrative and bureaucratic institutions of accountability include institutions of horizontal accountability, which consist of state institutions that oversee and sanction public agencies and other branches of the government. One classic example of horizontal accountability is the checksand-balances relationship between legislative, executive, and judiciary branches of government, which are supposed to constrain and monitor each other. Other examples include auditing agencies, anticorruption commissions, ombudsmen, central banks, and personnel departments. As part of the government itself, however, these institutions can find it difficult to establish legally authorized or actual autonomous oversight and sanctioning abilities.
DEMOCRATIC MECHANISMS OF ACCOUNTABILITY Another category of institutions that contribute to government accountability involve an active role by citizens themselves. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, John Stuart Mill and other political philosophers came to the conclusion that representative democracy could provide “accountable
and feasible government.” In a democracy, citizens would be capable of and responsible for “controlling the business of government.” In democratic models, citizens—rather than higher-level officials—become the “principals” supervising local officials. Democratic mechanisms and instruments of accountability include elections, constitutions and legislatures, and corporatism and other arrangements for incorporating citizen participation and oversight in the policy-making and policy implementation processes, and civil society institutions such as protections for free press and voluntary associations. ELECTIONS
Elections that are free and fair enable citizens to elect officials they believe to be responsive and responsible. People who want to be officials have to communicate their positions and objectives to the public. An informed public can then sanction them for failing to meet their responsibilities and obligations by voting them out of office. Although elections can in theory serve as an important mechanism for accountability, there is a difference between the existence of electoral democracy and a government that is actually accountable for the policies that it produces and implements. While a minimalist definition of electoral democracy simply requires competitive elections with broad suffrage where institutionalized political parties take turns in office, an accountable democratic government is closer to what Robert Dahl calls a “polyarchy”—an electoral democracy that also guarantees the existence of alternative information sources and civil liberties. These additional institutions ensure the ability of voters to obtain accurate information about official behavior and to sanction them appropriately. Elections also have a number of shortcomings if used as the primary or only mechanism for accountability to citizens. They occur infrequently, so voters have little control over elected officials between elections.Voters can only vote entire parties or candidates out of office instead of exercising more finely tuned sanctions on party or candidate behavior or decisions on a specific issue. CONSTITUTIONS AND LEGISLATURES
Even in consolidated democracies, bureaucratic officials are unelected and cannot be held accountable to voters through elections. Constitutions can authorize legislatures to hold unelected civil servants accountable by holding hearings and organizing investigations. CORPORATISM AND CITIZEN OVERSIGHT OF BUREAUCRACY
Institutions such as public hearings, advisory councils, and consultation committees increase transparency of information to citizens and incorporate citizen participation and oversight over the making of bureaucratic regulations and administrative statutes. An ombudsman can provide information to voters or negotiate with the bureaucracy on behalf of citizens who register complaints about the behavior of bureaucrats. It is often assumed that consolidated democracies with competitive elections are enough to ensure high levels of policy-making accountability, but because of the ambiguities
8 Accountability that always exist in laws and statutes, much policy making is often done in practice by the bureaucrats who are responsible for implementing the policy. As a result, policy-making accountability requires institutions that require bureaucrats to consult with citizens and interest groups who have relevant interests or special expertise such as corporatism before issuing administrative statutes to resolve gaps and ambiguities in legislation. Building these kinds of institutions to ensure policymaking accountability in new democracies such as countries in eastern Europe can often be far more difficult than setting up national elections and political parties. This view, however, is controversial. In the past, the working assumption has been that the bureaucracy needs to be apolitical and professional in order to ensure a degree of state autonomy. Shielded from political considerations, bureaucrats should be able to implement policies and laws impersonally, fairly, and efficiently. CIVIL SOCIETY INSTITUTIONS
Free press and citizen organizations also help to inform the public about the behavior of government actors and to sanction government actors for misconduct through influencing public opinion and voting. As providers of information, a free press and active civil society act as institutions that assist citizens in holding government actors accountable, but because government actors are legally obliged to answer to citizens rather than these societal actors, civil society organizations and the press are not necessarily considered agents of accountability. DECENTRALIZATION AND DEMOCRATIC ACCOUNTABILITY
Theories of decentralization posit that decentralization of fiscal, administrative, and political authority can increase democratic accountability. Local governments are thought to be more likely than higher levels to have better information about what citizens need and want. Decentralizing authority to local governments also should make it clear to citizens whom they should hold responsible for performance and economic development. Local autonomy over taxation and expenditures also may allow citizens to sanction local governments for poor fiscal performance and public goods provision. Local governments who have to compete for tax revenues from firms and individuals who move to the localities that provide the best policies and public services cannot afford to misuse public funds or run deficits that force them to raise taxes. On the other hand, decentralization also can have negative effects on other outcomes that may be important to governmental performance and representativeness. Decentralization can result in the hijacking of local government by local elites. Local governments may not have sufficient resources or expertise to resolve complex problems that have causes external to the locality. Moreover, decentralization in practice often reduces overall government accountability by obscuring how responsibilities are actually allocated among different levels of government and making government authority more complex.
FORMAL JUDICIAL OR LEGAL ACCOUNTABILITY In systems with rule of law, these institutions include constitutional tribunals that rule on the constitutionality of government actions and legislation. Court action and judicial review are also mechanisms that citizens can use to hold the government accountable.
INFORMAL INSTITUTIONS OF ACCOUNTABILITY In nondemocratic or transitional systems where formal institutions of accountability are weak, citizens may still be able to hold government officials accountable through informal institutions of accountability. Officials in these systems may not fear elections or sanctions from higher levels of the state, but they can become enmeshed in social obligations established by solidary communities such as ethnic groups, religious organizations, or nationalist movements. Solidary groups, based on shared moral standards and obligations rather than simply shared interests, can offer moral standing as an incentive to officials for performing well and providing public goods and services responsibly. Their activities also can offer forums for government officials to publicize their good behavior and public praise for this behavior as a reward. Higher moral standing can be an important source of soft power for government officials. In contrast to formal institutions of accountability such as elections and performance contracts, which are officially authorized for the purpose of holding officials accountable, the norms and obligations provided by solidary groups that help to establish a sense of obligation, transmit information about the behavior of public officials, and sanction misbehavior are informal in the sense that they evolved or were created to maintain the solidarity of a social group. They are not officially authorized or intended to enable citizens to hold government officials accountable, but do so nevertheless.
EMPIRICAL IMPLICATIONS Systems and institutions of accountability can have important effects on other significant political, economic, and social outcomes. Effective institutions of accountability can help to constrain corruption and the extent to which officials can deviate from the responsibilities of their office. Political systems with governmental accountability may experience more legitimacy, trust in government, and voluntary compliance from citizens with state demands such as tax collection and military draft. Institutions of accountability have been found to make financial crises less likely and affect economic output. See also Bureaucracy; Centralization, Deconcentration, and Decentralization; Checks and Balances; Civil Society; Principalagent Theory; Rule of Law;Transparency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LILY L. TSAI BIBLIOGRAPHY Dahl, Robert A. A Preface to Democratic Theory. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1956. Evans, Peter. Embedded Autonomy: States and Industrial Transformation. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995.
Addams, Jane 9 Evans, Peter B., Dietrich Rueschemeyer, and Theda Skocpol. Bringing the State Back In. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985. Fearon, James D. “Electoral Accountability and the Control of Politicians: Selecting Good Types versus Sanctioning Poor Performance.” In Democracy, Accountability, and Representation, edited by Adam Przeworski, Susan C. Stokes, and Bernard Manin, 55–97. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Ferejohn, John. “Accountability and Authority: Toward a Theory of Political Accountability.” In Democracy, Accountability, and Representation, edited by Adam Przeworski, Susan C. Stokes, and Bernard Manin, 131–153. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Fox, Jonathan A., and L. David Brown, eds. The Struggle for Accountability:The World Bank, NGOs, and Grassroots Movements. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1998. Hechter, Michael. The Principles of Group Solidarity, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988. Kaufman, Daniel, Aart Kraay, and Massimo Mastruzzi. “Governance Matters III: Governance Indicators for 1996–2002.” World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 3106, June 30, 2003. Laver, Michael, and Kenneth A. Shepsle. “Government Accountability in Parliamentary Democracy.” In Democracy, Accountability, and Representation, edited by Adam Przeworski, Susan C. Stokes, and Bernard Manin, 279–296. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Mainwaring, Scott, and Christopher Welna, eds. Democratic Accountability in Latin America. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003. Manzetti, Luigi. “Political Manipulations and Market Reforms Failures.” World Politics 55 (April 2003): 315–160. Mill, John Stuart. “Considerations on Representative Government.” In Utilitarianism, Liberty, and Representative Government, edited by H. B. Acton, 229–230. London: Dent, 1951. Moe, Terry. “The New Economics of Organization.” American Journal of Political Science 28, no. 4 (1984): 739–777. Moreno, Erika, Brain F. Crisp, and Matthew S. Shugart. “The Accountability Deficit in Latin America.” In Democratic Accountability in Latin America, edited by Scott Mainwaring and Christopher Welna, 79–154. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. O’Donnell, Guillermo. “Delegative Democracy.” Journal of Democracy 5 (January 1994): 55–69. ———. “Horizontal Accountability in New Democracies.” Journal of Democracy 9, no. 3 (1998): 112–126. Rodden, Jonathan. Hamilton’s Paradox:The Promise and Peril of Fiscal Federalism. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Rose-Ackerman, Susan. From Elections to Democracy: Building Accountable Government in Hungary and Poland. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Schedler, Andreas. “Conceptualizing Accountability.” In The Self-Restraining State: Power and Accountability in New Democracies, edited by Andreas Schedler, Larry Diamond, and Marc F. Plattner, 13–28. Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1999. Schedler, Andreas, Larry Diamond, and Marc F. Plattner, eds. The SelfRestraining State: Power and Accountability in New Democracies. Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1999. Schumpeter, Joseph A. 1942. Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy. New York: Harper and Row, 1975. Seabright, Paul. “Accountability and Decentralization in Government: An Incomplete Contracts Model.” Centre for Economic Policy Research Discussion Paper no. 889, London, 1996. Shearer, Teri. “Ethics and Accountability: From the For-Itself to the For-the-Other.” Accounting, Organizations, and Society 27, no. 6 (2002): 541–573. Sklar, Richard L. “Developmental Democracy.” Society for Comparative Studies in Society and History 29 (October 1987): 686–714. Smiley, Marion. Moral Responsibility and the Boundaries of Community: Power and Accountability from a Pragmatic Point of View. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992. Stokes, Susan C. “What Do Policy Switches Tell Us about Democracy.” In Democracy, Accountability, and Representation, edited by Adam Przeworski,
Susan C. Stokes, and Bernard Manin, 98–130. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Tsai, Lily. Accountability without Democracy: Solidary Groups and Public Goods Provision in Rural China. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007. Weber, Max. Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft. Tubingen, Germany: Mohr, 1922. ———. 1904–1911. Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology. Edited by Guenther Roth and Claus Wittich. New York: Bedminster, 1968.
Addams, Jane American social worker, educator, suffragist, and social and political activist and commentator, Jane Addams (1860–1935) was born in Illinois. She is best known for cofounding Hull House in 1889 with friend Ellen Gates Starr. This revolutionary settlement house was located in Chicago’s predominantly immigrant area. Addams used her influence to fight for decreases in infant mortality, and for childhood immunizations; children’s literacy; better sanitation; and the rights of women, factory workers, tenants, newsboys, railroad workers, and midwives. She waged protracted campaigns against disease, truancy, prostitution, drug use, and alcoholism. A staunch advocate for peace, she also helped to redefine roles for women of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. After leaving Women’s Medical College of Philadelphia for health reasons, Addams traveled to Europe in 1893. In London, she visited Toynbee Hall, a settlement house that became the model for Hull House. Addams gathered a revolving group of her friends of both sexes at Hull House, which boasted day nurseries, a kindergarten, boys and girls clubs, a gym, public baths, and a swimming pool. Hull House brought theater, concerts, and extension courses on a range of subjects into the lives of Chicago’s poor immigrants. Addams became involved in local politics to promote her causes, engaging in direct battle with Chicago’s political machine. She was named sanitation inspector and served on the Board of Education and various committees. She also served on a number of national committees and made history by nominating Theodore Roosevelt as presidential candidate for the Progressive Party in 1912. Addams soon became disillusioned with Roosevelt and supported Democrat Woodrow Wilson in 1916 because of his promise to keep the United States out of World War I (1914–1918). When Wilson was unable to fulfill that promise, Addams broke with the Democratic Party and voted for Socialist candidate Eugene Debs in 1920. World War I changed the public’s image of Addams. Her propeace stance during a time of world war and high national patriotism resulted in Addams, once one of the most admired women in the country, becoming one of the most reviled. In 1929, Addams was named president for life of the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom. In 1931, she shared the Nobel Peace Prize with fellow peace advocate Nicholas Murray Butler. Three years later, however, her reputation suffered again when she was identified as a dangerous radical by Elizabeth Patrick Delling in The Red Network: A Who’s Who and Handbook of Radicalism for Patriots.
10 Additional Member System
Additional Member System The additional member system is an electoral process that combines both constituency and proportional voting. Voters may cast two ballots, the first for a representative of their geographic region and the second for a political party. Individual representatives are elected in the traditional first-past-the-post method, while the party vote is used to allocate seats among party lists. The additional member system is common in western Europe for balloting for national or regional representative bodies. For instance, in the Scottish Parliament, seventy-three seats are elected through the first-past-the-post system and the remaining fifty-six are chosen through party lists.Variations of the system include the mixed-member proportional process, which allows additional seats to be awarded to the parties that gain the highest number of seats in the proportional voting. This offsets victories in individual constituencies and ensures that the composition of elected bodies is roughly proportional. The system is designed to ensure that small parties are better able to compete against larger and better-funded groupings. However, the use by some countries of minimum thresholds, as high as 5 percent of the vote, continues to prevent some smaller parties from gaining seats. See also Electoral Formulas; First Past the Post; Representative Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TOM LANSFORD Jane Addams first became involved in politics to promote personal causes but made a national impact on social issues. source: Library of Congress
Addams’ early written work appeared as essays to promote her views on social causes. Such was the case with A Modern King Lear (written in 1894 but not released publicly until 1912), a controversial essay about the 1894 Pullman strike. Her major works include Democracy and Social Ethics (1902), a commentary on the conflict between American democratic ideals and the realities of the Industrial Revolution, and Newer Ideals of Peace (1907), a rejection of Enlightenment theory, as well as the autobiography in TwentyYears at Hull House (1910), The Second Twenty Years at Hull House (1930), and numerous later works. See also Nobel Peace Prize; Progressiveism. . . . . . . . . . . . . ELIZABETH RHOLETTER PURDY BIBLIOGRAPH Y Addams, Jane. Forty Years at Hull House. New York: Macmillan, 1935. Davis, Allen F. American Heroine:The Life and Legend of Jane Addams. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2000. Elshtain, Jean Bethke. Jane Addams and the Dream of American Democracy: A Life. New York: Basic Books, 2002. Knight, Louise W. Jane Addams and the Struggle for Democracy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005. Lasch, Christopher, ed. The Social Thought of Jane Addams. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1965.
Adjudication Adjudication is a mechanism by which disputes or controversies are peacefully resolved. It is a method of conflict resolution wherein an official and formal declaration of a legal judgment or determination is rendered in a tribunal proceeding. Societies can resolve conflicts among parties in a variety of ways without recourse to formal adjudications: legislative statutory enactment of policies, mediation and arbitration in employment disputes or labor-management clashes, persuasion, compromising and negotiation among parties to a contract, marriage counseling, or even parental discipline. The diverse methods of conflict resolution can be classified according to two dimensions: the level of formality of the proceedings and the level of governmental involvement in the proceedings. The higher the level of each, the more the method displays the hallmarks of adjudication. Both the courts and regulatory administrative agencies engage in formal adjudication. In terms of the raw numbers adjudications in the United States, agencies engage in far more than the courts do. Nevertheless, the archetypal adjudication is found in the court system, and adjudication procedures in administrative agencies increasingly resemble adjudication in the courts.The delivery of justice to aggrieved parties has been at the heart of adjudication from ancient times, but the contemporary era has developed a specific archetype of adjudication: a tribunal that establishes the facts in a dispute, assesses the relevant law and attendant guiding rules and principles,
Administrative Courts 11 and then applies the law to the facts. Claims of all parties to the dispute are duly weighed and considered, and there are avenues for appeal by the parties of the final decision. The presiding judge must be impartial and have no vested interest in the outcome. In the American system, courts are organized into trial and appeals courts. Both types of courts engage in adjudication, albeit with different underlying dynamics. Trial courts possess original jurisdiction; that is, they are the initial courts to hear cases. There is much variation among different court jurisdictions and judicial systems in the rules of evidence that guide and structure the establishment of the facts in trial courts. Appeals courts have appellate jurisdiction; that is, they hear appeals from parties who lost in a trial court or in a lower appeals court. Appellate courts, which are composed of a multiple judge panel, do not reconsider the facts and do not retry the case; instead, they assess the fairness of trial court proceedings by ascertaining whether the law and legal procedures were followed properly. They review trial court procedures and rulings (for example, the admissibility of evidence) for congruence with statutory and constitutional obligations. In other words, they review previous court proceedings and assess whether those court proceedings were fair. Trial and appellate courts hear and resolve both civil and criminal cases. Criminal adjudications revolve around murder, rape, robbery, assault, embezzlement, extortion, and other acts that bring harm to society and are violations of the penal code. In criminal adjudications the government brings the legal action against the defendant. Alternatively, civil cases revolve around disputes between private parties and potential violations of private rights—the state is typically not a party in such disputes. These private disputes typically are over personal welfare, property, or finances. Judicial responses in such cases involve a judge’s declaration ordering certain actions be taken or some amount of pecuniary compensation to be awarded. For a process of adjudication to proceed, two conditions must be met: the court must have the legal right to hear the case (jurisdiction) and the parties must have the right to bring the case before the court (standing). Jurisdictions for courts stem primarily from statutes and constitutions laying out what specific types of disputes or types of parties to a dispute fall under the purview of particular courts. The jurisdictional requirement reinforces the main function of the courts—to protect the rights of individuals. At the core of standing is that the plaintiff has suffered an actual injury or harm to a legally protected interest. Such a harm or injury must be clear and concrete and particularized to that plaintiff, and it also must be actual or immanent, not merely hypothetical or speculative. The standing requirement distinguishes the courts’ role from the role of the legislature, which is to promote the public interest and society in general. In other words, adjudications by the courts focus on more individualized-level dispute resolution, whereas the public policy-making process as conducted by legislatures focuses on more generalized-level disputes. Nevertheless, class-action lawsuits, such as those brought
against the tobacco industry because of its health effects, tend to blur the line between the two. See also Administrative Courts;Trial Courts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STEPHEN R. ROUTH BIBLIOGRAPHY Baum, Lawrence. American Courts: Process and Policy, 4th ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1998. Carp, Robert A., Ronald Stidham, and Kenneth L. Manning. Judicial Processes in America. 6th ed. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2004. Melone, Albert P., and Allan Karnes. The American Legal System: Foundations, Process, and Norms. Los Angeles: Roxbury, 2003. Murphy, Walter F., C. Herman Pritchett, Lee Epstein, and Jack Night. Courts, Judges, and Politics: An Introduction to the Judicial Process. Boston: McGrawHill, 2006. Porto, Brian L. May It Please the Court: Judicial Processes and Politics in America. New York: Longman, 2001. Warren, Kenneth F. Administrative Law in the Political System, 4th ed. Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 2004.
Administration, International See International Administration.
Administrative Courts Administrative courts are judicial bodies that adjudicate cases involving disputes that arise under administrative law—that is to say, disputes over the government’s exercise of its public authority. Administrative law regulates the exercise of authority by executive officials (administrative acts); it also lays out the correctives or remedies when public officials violate those rules. Administrative courts are distinct from general courts as they focus solely on these types of public law disputes, whereas general courts may deal with both private law disputes (conflicts between private citizens or private entities) and public law controversies. Administrative courts typically play a more prominent role in countries with a history of civil law systems that feature elaborate legal codes (such as France and other countries in continental Europe) than in nations with a common law tradition where many legal principles are taken from prior judicial rulings (such as Great Britain, some other nations in the British Commonwealth, and the United States).
A CLASH OF INTERESTS At the heart of administrative court litigation is a clash involving the private interests of a citizen on one side and the public interest as advanced by organs of the state on the other. Ultimately a country’s decision to have a specialized system of administrative courts is based on a policy decision about the best way to render and ensure justice and fairness in administration. Citizens or corporations unhappy with a governmental agency decision concerning, for example, welfare eligibility, old-age or disability entitlements, immigration status, level of tax liability, the granting of a broadcasting license, or the ability to develop a wetlands area, need a forum for resolving this type of conflict between their private interest and the public entity. Should there be a separate set of courts with specialized jurisdiction only on this type of case, or should general courts
12 Administrative Courts with broader jurisdiction and less-specialized judges have this type of private-public dispute fall within their purview?
SEPARATIST VERSUS INTEGRATIONIST ORIENTATIONS Liberal democracies have settled on two approaches for addressing this foundational question—the separatist and the integrationist. A leading example of the separatist orientation is found in France, which features a well-developed administrative courts arrangement. French administrative courts engage in close judicial oversight of public agency actions. All administrative decisions produced by executive officials may be subject to review by the Conseil d’État (Council of State), which sits at the apex of an administrative court system of lower tribunals and intermediate courts of appeals that adjudicate these public law disputes. This particular court possesses much authority, independence, and prestige in the French legal system, and there is no comparable analogue to it in either Great Britain or the United States.Through its myriad decisions, the Conseil d’État has developed abiding legal precedents and principles concerning administrative power as exercised by the state; its jurisprudence constitutes a viable check to executive power but also lends legitimacy to various state actions. Proponents of the separatist approach point to these courts’ specialization and expertise in administrative law (and specific administrative areas) as the major advantages over general courts.With the growth of the modern administrative state and regulation of more private sector activities (and the resultant heavier administrative caseload for general courts) these courts are well positioned to manage the caseload and clarify the legal principles shaping the relationship between the individual citizen and the authority of the state bureaucracy. However, critics argue that administrative courts are inherently adverse to long-established views of individual liberty and freedom, primarily because such courts may have a tendency to defer to the state using judicial criteria that favor of the exercise of executive power. The integrationist model is typically found in Anglo-American countries with their accompanying common law systems. This approach posits that a nation only needs one kind of court to resolve disputes arising from both private and public law— legal rules and principles should be equally applicable to both realms without an artificial distinction between the two. Thus, there is no need for a second set of specialized courts; ordinary courts are completely adequate and proper in rendering administrative justice. Proponents of this approach also contend that having a separate apparatus of administrative courts ineluctably leads to jurisdictional confusion and procedural problems for judges and litigants in trying to determine in which court should litigation be situated.With only one group of courts, such “territorial” problems are not an issue and the judicial structure is helpfully simplified for all involved. Questions revolving around the appropriate scope of administrative discretion resist easy resolution; this uncertainty becomes even more acute when having another set of courts adjudicating administrative disputes. As well, at a more theoretical level, the
integrationist model postulates the fundamental notion that both the government and the people should obey the same laws—both components of society must be held accountable to the law by the same set of judges, judicial standards, and legal principles.
CONVERGENCE In practice, however, countries that have attempted to use just one set of courts to handle all disputes over time have dropped their conceptual purity and begin to use some specialized forms of administrative courts. Caseload burdens and the need for judicial expertise in substantive policy areas often work to increase the number of administrative courts. Whether the ordinary judicial system can accommodate these types of specialized administrative disputes is an important determinant of a state ultimately choosing to have this second structure of courts. A prime example of this is the United States, where several administrative courts in the federal government specifically handle litigation stemming from areas of patents, copyright, customs, and taxes. Most of these courts were created by the U.S. Congress under its powers under Article I of the Constitution, as opposed to the more familiar general federal court system established by Article III that constitute the judicial branch. The judges appointed by the president to these courts do not enjoy the lifetime tenure of Article III federal judges. The decisions of these courts, however, are reviewable on appeal to the Article III courts (i.e., the U.S. Courts of Appeals and the U.S. Supreme Court). A derivative form of administrative courts can be found within some U.S. executive branch agencies that have their own internal administrative tribunals (conducted by ostensibly independent administrative law judges) to help more expeditiously resolve disputes over administrative decisions. Judicial review by appeal to an Article III court remains available to disputants after exhausting the appeals process through these administrative tribunals and agency appeal boards. See also Adjudication; Administrative Law; Administrative State; Conseil d’État; Regulation and Rulemaking;Trial Courts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STEPHEN R. ROUTH BIBLIOGRAPHY Abraham, Henry J. The Judicial Process: An Introductory Analysis of the Courts of the United States, England, and France, 7th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. Derbyhire, J. Denis, and Ian Derbyshire. Political Systems of the World. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 1996. Legomsky, Stephen H. Specialized Justice: Courts, Administrative Tribunals, and a Cross-national Theory of Specialization. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990. Melnick, R. Shep. Regulation and the Courts:The Case of the Clean Air Act. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1983. Rabkin, Jeremy. Judicial Compulsions: How Public Law Distorts Public Policy. New York: Basic Books, 1989. Shapiro, Martin. Who Guards the Guardians? Judicial Control of Administration. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1988. Warren, Kenneth F. Administrative Law in the Political System, 4th ed. Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 2004.
Administrative Law 13
Administrative Law Administrative law is the body of law that deals with the procedures, authority, and actions involved in public administration. It incorporates the various powers, responsibilities, duties, and functions of public agencies and agency officials in the attempted advancement of their respective missions, along with judicial decisions that help structure these exercises of authority. The expansion and progression of administrative law have been concomitant with the growth of the administrative state in the twentieth century as governmental bureaucracy has developed to deal with pressing social, economic, and political problems emanating from modern society. In other words, at its core, administrative law is the branch of law that regulates the exercise of authority by executive branch officials. A focus of much of administrative law is on the protocols and procedures to which government agencies must adhere to take legal and constitutionally acceptable actions that affect private parties. Thus, it can be said that the corpus of administrative law is composed of efforts to ensure that governmental agencies effectively implement public policies designed to advance the public interest, and at the same time to guarantee that the liberty of private interests are safeguarded from possible and potential administrative infringements. Rephrased, administrative law is a fluid and ever-evolving area of law that endeavors to reconcile and synthesize public and private interests—agencies are in place to help government fulfill its mission, but they may not violate individual liberties. In the American context at the federal level, there are four main sources of administrative law: the U.S. Constitution, the Administrative Procedure Act of 1946 (APA), particular agency enabling acts, and administrative common law. The APA is a federal law that directly lays out the procedures agencies must follow and creates the legal structure for review by the federal courts of agency actions. At the core of motivation behind the enactment of the APA was Congress’s wish to not allow executive agencies so much leeway in the conduct of their duties that executive agents would be able to drift away from congressional intentions and desires in the law that the executive was implementing. The great and abrupt growth of the administrative state under President Franklin Roosevelt communicated to Congress the need for such structures as the APA to rein in and guide executive actions. Similar legislative concerns are manifested also in the drafting of agency enabling acts that set out the boundaries of agency authority and purpose and the use of the legislative veto.The actual, dayto-day implementation of public policy and enforcement of laws remains a continuing source of political and institutional tension between the executive branch and the Congress. Agencies are the entities that actually execute the laws that the legislature has enacted, and they engage in several types of activities when enforcing these laws. These agency activities include the regulation of private conduct, the disbursement of entitlements, the management of governmental property, the granting of licenses and permits, engaging in investigations and gathering of information, and the making of public policy. The
vast majority of what agency officials do ends up having important consequences on the lives of private parties, by preventing them or allowing them to engage in a particular action, or giving them or taking away some form of benefit. Two important sets of actions that agencies engage in when performing such activities are rulemaking and the issuance of an order after an adjudication of a dispute. Rulemaking is essentially where an agency promulgates a general rule or regulation that is filling in the details of statutory policy and that rule possesses the force of law. The issuance of an administrative order is more specifically tailored to a particular dispute in which a private party is required, after an administrative hearing, to conform to the law by doing or refraining from doing certain things. There is variation among liberal democracies in their respective administrative law structures. For example, administrative law in France and Sweden is administered by a system of highly developed separate administrative courts that are distinct from ordinary courts in that they focus solely on public law disputes. Such administrative courts are more readily seen and stronger in countries with a history of civil law legal systems than in nations with a common law legal heritage (such as the United States and Great Britain). The purpose of these courts is to closely oversee public agency actions. In the French system, all administrative decisions produced by executive officials are subject to review by the Conseil d’État (Council of State), which sits at the apex of this system of administrative lower tribunals and intermediate courts of appeals. This particular court possesses much authority, independence, and prestige in the French legal system, and there is no comparable analogue to it in either the United States or Great Britain. Through its myriad decisions over the past two hundred years, the Conseil d’État has developed abiding legal precedents and principles concerning administrative power as exercised by the state.Thus, the leading administrative court in France constitutes a viable check to executive power, as well as lending legitimacy to various state actions. The judiciary’s use of administrative law is a leading method by which bureaucrats can be held accountable and to ensure executive fidelity to the law and correct procedures. Some controversy and ongoing questions revolve around agency activities and how administrative law has developed to deal with those concerns. A variety of nations have opted for an external watchdog of an ombudsman to help assist in scrutinizing potentially problematic actions taken by government administrators. The ombudsman is an appointed public official who has the authority to investigate accusations of corrupt, incompetent, or incorrect actions taken by bureaucrats. This oversight mechanism started in Scandinavia and has filtered out over time to other European democracies and to the European Union, but its full potential is yet to be seen. In the United States, an important worry is that the scope of agency action has worked to undermine the separation-ofpowers system—legislative, executive, and judicial—as laid out in the Constitution. The U.S. Supreme Court has held that it is constitutionally permissible for executive agencies to exert authority that one normally associates with the legislative and
14 Administrative State judicial branches as long as judicial review of agency decisions is available to the affected parties and agencies operate only in areas that are clearly under their regulatory jurisdiction and expertise. Thus, this merging of governmental powers is constitutionally satisfactory as long as appropriate safeguards are kept in place. Of special concern in these separation-of-powers considerations is the delegation doctrine. The delegation doctrine prohibits excessive delegation of discretionary powers by the Congress to federal agencies. The major question here is where exactly is the threshold when the U.S. Congress has delegated too much authority to an agency so that the agency is actually legislating the law, and not the Congress itself? From the 1940s to the present, the delegation doctrine has become essentially dormant in the federal courts and does not pose much of a constraint on Congress, with Congress giving healthy amounts of leeway to agencies in the implementation of federal law. As long as some type of intelligible principle is articulated in the relevant law to generally guide the implementing agency, the courts will uphold the agency action as meeting the requirements of the delegation doctrine and is thus constitutional. See also Administrative Courts; Delegation, Theories of; Regulation and Rulemaking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STEPHEN R. ROUTH BIBLIOGRAPH Y Breyer, Stephen G., Adrian Vermeul, Richard B. Stewart, and Cass Sunstein. Administrative Law and Regulatory Policy: Problems,Texts, and Cases. New York: Aspen, 2006. Cass, Ronald A., Colin S. Driver, and Jack M. Beermann. Administrative Law: Cases and Materials. New York: Aspen, 2006. Funk, William F., and Richard H. Seamon. Administrative Law: Examples and Explanations, 3rd ed. New York: Aspen, 2009. Hall, Daniel E., and John Feldmeier. Administrative Law: Bureaucracy and Democracy, 4th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2008. Strauss, Peter L. Administrative Justice in the United States, 2nd ed. Durham, N.C.: Carolina Academic Press, 2002. Warren, Kenneth F. Administrative Law in the Political System, 4th ed. Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 2004.
Administrative State The term administrative state denotes political systems in contemporary developed nations with rationally organized, technically oriented government agencies that play large, central, and powerful roles in the formulation of public policy and the implementation of government services, constraints, functions, and programs. The term came into common usage in political science with the publication of Dwight Waldo’s classic 1948 book The Administrative State. The administrative state developed from a variety of historical causes including the rise of the twentieth century welfare-warfare state, market failures in capitalist economies, and socialist economic organization.
THE BUREAUCRACY A chief characteristic of the administrative state is the development of a new and relatively independent power center in government, typically referred to as “the bureaucracy,” that is difficult for chief executives, legislatures, and courts to control.
Independence develops from the selection of tenured administrative personnel based on technical expertise (merit), the scope of administrative tasks and the detailed knowledge they require, and the continuous operation of administrative units regardless of changes in their leadership and staff. Such units are difficult for legislators, elected and politically appointed executives, and courts to supervise and hold accountable due to their technical expertise, knowledge of and adherence to routine, scope of activity, and limited transparency. The organization of administrative units in the administrative state is typically bureaucratic; that is, incorporating specialization, hierarchy, expertise, impersonality, and large size. Specialization of units is by jurisdiction and function. Ministries or departments are generally the largest units. Smaller units are called agencies, and subunits are called bureaus. Jurisdictional specialization is manifested in such units as Ministries or Departments of Labor, Commerce, Agriculture, and Interior, among others. Specialization by function forms the basis of units devoted to such matters as defense; national security; crime control; education; nuclear power; welfare; and economic, environmental, and social regulation, as well as for overhead administrative activities such as budgeting, procurement, and personnel administration. These categories are not wholly distinct—overlaps are common and one person’s regulation may be another’s service, as in the case of measures for consumer protection. Hierarchy reaching upward through political appointees in the administrative units to the various offices of the chief executive and culminating with the president, premier, or prime minister promotes coordination of the administrative component as a whole. Expertise, sometimes referred to as “technorationality,” results from specialization and the selection of administrative personnel based on merit. Impersonality, which contributes to procedural regularity and continuity of operations, is promoted by organizations based on positions rather than on persons (e.g., individual administrators), adherence to comprehensive procedural rules for decision making and other actions, and communication in writing. Large size is a function of the broad range of policies and activities dealt with by the administrative state.
SEPARATION OF POWERS VERSUS PARLIAMENTARY SYSTEMS In separation-of-powers systems, the administrative state is at odds with the governmental design because administrative units combine all three functions of government: execution, legislation, and adjudication. Execution of legal mandates is the primary function of administrative units. However, they also legislate in a generic sense by enacting rules setting regulatory standards that have the force of law. Administrative units also adjudicate a wide variety of economic conflicts, such as whether a labor or advertising practice is fair.The collapse of the separation of functions into a modern nation’s administrative component and its individual units is an inevitable outgrowth of expansion in the scope of governmental activity. Legislatures lack the capacity to draft laws with detailed standards for a host
Adverse Selection and Moral Hazard 15 of economic, social, and other activities and environmental and other conditions subject to governmental regulation. Similarly, court systems would require dramatic expansion to deal effectively with all the conflicts resolved through administrative adjudication. Because agencies exercise executive, legislative, and adjudicatory functions, they are apt to be subject to some degree of direction and oversight by each branch of government, sometimes dictating conflicting courses of action. The administrative state in parliamentary systems is more in keeping with the governmental design because the legislative and executive functions are fused in the sense that the political executive is formally a creature of the legislature. Nevertheless, the elective governmental institutions and courts may lack the capacity to exercise close direction over the whole range of administrative operations. See also Bureaucracy; Bureaucratic Authoritarianism; State, Functions of the; State,The. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DAVID H. ROSENBLOOM BIBLIOGRAPH Y Barker, Ernest. The Development of Public Services in Western Europe. Hamden, Conn.: Archon, 1966. Chapman, Brian. The Profession of Government. London: Unwin University Books, 1959. Jacoby, Henry. The Bureaucratization of the World. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973. Kettl, Donald. The Transformation of Governance. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002. Morestein Marx, Fritz. The Administrative State. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1957. Rohr, John A. To Run a Constitution:The Legitimacy of the Administrative State. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1986. Rosenbloom, David H., and Howard McCurdy, eds. Revisiting Waldo’s Administrative State. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 2007. Van Riper, Paul P. “Administrative State.” In International Encyclopedia of Public Policy and Administration, edited by Jay Shafritz, 71–77. Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1998. Wilson, James Q. Bureaucracy. New York: Basic Books, 1989.
Adorno, Theodor W. Theodor Wiesengrund Adorno (1903–1969) was a German music theorist, literary critic, philosopher, social psychologist, and sociologist. Born in Frankfurt to a family of musicians, Adorno started to write as a music critic at a very early age. His name is, however, primarily linked to the Frankfurt school, the group of intellectuals working within the framework of the Frankfurt Institute for Social Research, of which he is considered to be one of the central exponents.The essays he wrote in the 1930s in the Zeitschrift für Sozialforschung, the main organ of the institute, combine formal music analysis with a sociological critique. With Adolf Hitler’s rise to power, Adorno, together with other members of the institute, migrated to the United States, first to New York and then to California. During these years Adorno collaborated with philosopher and sociologist Max Horkheimer, with whom he wrote the influential Dialectic of Enlightenment (1944). In this book, written after the advent of Nazism and their experience of American mass society, the
authors developed a harsh critique of Western rationality by arguing that the latter, far from realizing the Enlightenment’s promise of emancipation, had turned into a radical form of domination. In so doing, they suggested that the entire Western Enlightenment was ultimately based on an instrumental concept of reason and domination over nature that could result in the opposite of reason—that is, myth and barbarism. Adorno returned to Frankfurt in 1949 and contributed to reopening the Institute for Social Research. Although Adorno would try, in particular in his later Negative Dialectics (1966), to investigate the way in which rationality could escape the dialectic of Enlightenment, thus avoiding the nightmare of total domination, his work remained devoted to critiquing late capitalist societies. In particular, Adorno’s writings on mass culture contain a powerful critique of the way in which culture and other everyday practices can become the vehicle of ideological forms of domination. Adorno also promoted and took part in empirical studies, which was in line with the multidisciplinary character of the Frankfurt school research program. One of the most prominent works of Adorno’s in this field is the collaborative Authoritarian Personality (1950). This study combines insights from psychoanalysis with sociological research in an attempt to provide an explanation for the rise of authoritarianism. Due to the importance he gave to factors such as culture and psychology, Adorno, like other exponents of the Frankfurt school, exercised an important function in the renewal of Western Marxism, as well as in the opening of new fields of investigation into the sociology of culture. See also Enlightenment Political Thought; Frankfurt School; Horkheimer, Max; Marxism; Political Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHIARA BOTTICI BIBLIOGRAPHY Adorno, Theodor W. 1966. Negative Dialectics. London: Routledge, 1990. ———. The Culture Industry: Selected Essays on Mass Culture, edited by J. M. Bernstein. London: Routledge, 1991. ———. The Adorno Reader, edited by Brian O’Connor. Oxford, U.K.: Blackwell, 2000. ———. Essays on Music. Berkley: University of California Press, 2002. Adorno, Theodor W., Betty Aron, William Morrow, Maria Hertz Levinson, Else Frenkel-Brunswik, Daniel J. Levinson, and R. Nevitt Sanford. 1950. The Authoritarian Personality. New York: Norton, 1969. Adorno, Theodor W., and Max Horkheimer. 1944. Dialectic of Enlightenment. London:Verso, 1997.
Adverse Selection and Moral Hazard Adverse selection and moral hazard are informational imperfections potentially presented in any activity or transaction because of asymmetric information about involved risks. Adverse selection is a possibility that actors undertake an activity or transaction based on actors’ characteristics unobservable for others (these are informed actors because they know their own characteristics). If the decisions of informed actors adversely affect other uninformed actors participating
16 Advertising, Political in the same activity or transaction, then adverse selection is present. Moral hazard is a possibility that informed actors might undertake an activity or transaction more risky than uninformed actors’ original belief. If such activity or transaction is undertaken, and uninformed actors cannot observe it, then moral hazard is present. For example, if a state borrows money from an international organization, then the state has more information about its own current and future risks than does the lender. Adverse selection arises from the possibility of using borrowed funds in the ways that would lead to difficulties in repaying the loan. Alternatively, moral hazard arises if that state, which had intended to use borrowed funds in a less risky way, experiences a change in government, and the new government uses the borrowed funds for riskier purposes. See also Ethics, Political. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TATIANA VASHCHILKO
Advertising, Political Political advertising encompasses a broad array of strategies in which paid media is used to communicate political messages to the public. Although most commonly associated with candidates’ campaign commercials, political advertising has developed into a massive industry in which various political actors (e.g., parties, advocacy groups) use a host of media such as radio, television, and the Internet to deliver carefully packaged messages directly to voters. Research has provided important insights into the use and effect of political ads, although some intriguing questions have yet to be fully resolved.
EARLY AMERICAN USAGE Political advertising has developed considerably since its early use in the first American elections. Campaign advertisements were initially limited to handbills, newspaper ads, and, later, radio spots, but the advent of television significantly enhanced the ability of candidates to make direct appeals to the public. The 1952 U.S. presidential election featured the first series of televised candidate commercials which, although relatively simple, signaled a new era in political advertising. Over time, television spots became more ubiquitous, increasingly sophisticated, and, in some cases, more alarming. U.S. presidential candidate Lyndon B. Johnson’s 1964 “Daisy” ad, for example, shocked many with contrasting images of a little girl and an atomic mushroom cloud—so much so that, although it only ran once, the media replayed it multiple times on evening newscasts. Since then, there have been many notable spots, including presidential candidate Ronald Reagan’s 1984 “Morning in America” ad, which used positive imagery to inspire voters, and his “Bear in the Woods” ad, which invoked fears of a foreign enemy—both themes that would be reused in subsequent campaigns. In 1988 the “Willie Horton” ad promoting the campaign of U.S. presidential candidate George H. W. Bush stirred controversy by allegedly including implicit racial cues, and, in 2000, an ad in which the word rats flashed briefly across the television screen during a voiceover
regarding U.S. presidential candidate Al Gore’s prescription drug plan raised questions about the possible use of subliminal techniques in political advertising. The American political advertising industry has expanded beyond presidential candidates to include a host of other political actors. It is now common for many candidates across all levels of elected office to spend large portions of their budgets on creating and airing ever more sophisticated advertising campaigns. In terms of buying air time, estimates show that congressional and gubernatorial candidates spent nearly $2 billion during the 2006 campaign alone. Political advertising has further expanded to include advocacy groups who now routinely sponsor “issue ads” that promote a policy—often implicitly tied to a candidate—without explicitly offering an endorsement. Candidates benefit from the issue being promoted without having to pay for the ad or being held accountable for what is said.
NEW VENUES Political advertising also has expanded to new venues. Campaigns are now using the Internet to create somewhat unorthodox pieces, such as animated spots or comedic skits that are intended to be distributed through a viral network of supporters. Individual citizens also have started producing their own Web-based political ads, some of which have gained considerable attention on the Internet. In addition, the 2004 U.S. presidential candidates pioneered a technique called “phantom advertising” in which they created ads that, rather than being aired, were sent to media outlets in the hopes that they would be included in stories about the campaign. American political advertising is an expanding enterprise that appears to be on the cusp of another profound change. These trends and practices have started to have some influence on political advertising in other Western democracies. Growing similarities are due, in part, to the fact that American political consultants have increasingly exported their strategies to parties and candidates in other countries. While this has raised concerns about the “Americanization” of campaigns in places like Britain, Canada, and France, differences in campaign spending laws, party systems, and political culture have kept political advertising in these countries from completely replicating the American model.
RESEARCH ON ADVERTISING EFFECTS Scholarly interest in political advertising has produced valuable insights into the nature and strategic use of ads as well as their effect on the public. Political ads have been usefully categorized based on their tone (e.g., positive, negative), approach (e.g., attack, contrast), and substance (e.g., issue, image). This work, along with massive collection and cataloging efforts, has provided the necessary foundation for understanding various aspects of political advertising. One such area of research concerns the motivations that drive political actors in their strategic use of advertisements. Research has shown, for example, that candidates are more likely to use attack ads when they are involved in a tight race. Otherwise, they are inclined to promote their candidacy with contrasting or positive messages. However, challengers
Advise and Consent 17 Researchers also have explored how voters are affected by political advertising more generally. Although most people claim to dislike political ads, a number of studies have shown that ads can be significantly informative. In fact, voters seem to learn more about candidates and issues from political ads than they do from newspaper or television coverage. This is because ads are succinct, shown repeatedly, and designed to be memorable, thus enhancing their reception, particularly among those who may be less interested in other forms of campaign news. However, while people may learn from political ads, the evidence suggests that ads do more to activate and reconfirm political beliefs than they do to persuade people to vote one way or another. This does not mean that political ads have little strategic value. In fact, this solidifying of beliefs seems to be quite important, as evidenced by the finding that, in general, advertising expenditures are positively associated with levels of voter support. Unfortunately, research on the ultimate impact that advertising has on election outcomes has been plagued by difficulties in measuring exposure to ads and controlling other influences in the campaign environment. So, while it is clear that political ads can have some effect on voters, questions remain about their overall role in determining electoral outcomes. See also Advocacy Groups; Campaigns; Public Opinion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MICHAEL PARKIN
As part of a its advertising campaign, the Maryland Republican Party issued a letter to its members linking then-governor Michael Dukakis with murderer Willie Horton in an effort to discredit Dukakis. source: AP Images
are generally more likely than incumbents to run negative ads because challengers need to make the case for replacing the incumbent. Furthermore, although previous research suggested that candidates avoid discussing issues “owned” by—significantly identified with—their opponent’s party, more contemporary work suggests that candidates may, at times, use ads to engage in issue dialogue, particularly when races are close. The effect of negative advertising has received considerable scholarly attention. Initially, attack ads were thought to depress voter turnout by decreasing feelings of political efficacy and satisfaction with the electoral process. Subsequent research has argued, however, that negative political ads can actually stimulate participation by providing salient and compelling information while motivating people to act against the concerns raised in the ad. This tension in the literature may be explained, at least in part, by the possibility that low levels of negativity spur participation while a saturation of negative ads drives it down. Furthermore, researchers have shown that the effects of negative advertising likely are conditioned by factors including the source of the negativity and the individual characteristics of voters, such as gender and race.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Ansolabehere, Stephen, and Shanto Iyengar. Going Negative: How Political Advertisements Shrink and Polarize the Electorate. New York: Free Press, 1995. Brader, Ted. Campaigning for Hearts and Minds: How Emotional Appeals in Political Ads Work. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006. Brians, Craig L., and Martin P. Wattenberg. “Campaign Issue Knowledge and Salience: Comparing Reception from TV Commercials, TV News, and Newspapers.” American Journal of Political Science 40, no. 1 (1996): 172–193. Franz, Michael M., Paul B. Freedman, Kenneth M. Goldstein, and Travis N. Ridout. Campaign Advertising and American Democracy. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2007. Geer, John G. In Defense of Negativity: Attack Ads in Presidential Campaigns. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006. Goldstein, Kenneth, and Travis A. Ridout. “Measuring the Effects of Televised Political Advertising in the United States.” Annual Review of Political Science 7 (2004): 205–226. Kaid, Lynda Lee, and Anne Johnston. Videostyle in Presidential Campaigns: Style and Content of Televised Political Advertising. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2001. West, Darrel M. Air Wars:Television Advertising in Election Campaigns, 1952–2004, 4th ed. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2005.
Advise and Consent The U.S. Constitution, in Article II, Section 2, mandates that the Senate engage in advice and consent with presidential appointments to the executive and judicial branches. This constitutional provision is notably brief and vague pertaining to this Senate responsibility, and this has led to a variety of conflicts between presidents and senators over what constitutes the proper manner of fulfilling this congressional task. The Constitution states that it is the president who formally chooses and nominates appointees to fill vacancies to
18 Advocacy Coalition Networks important posts in the federal government, and it is the Senate’s duty to confirm or reject such nominations after reviewing them. Advice and consent is a prime example of the constitutional framework of the separation of powers among the three branches of the federal government being layered over with checks and balances. These checks and balances result ultimately in a sharing of power at times between the executive and legislative branches—in this instance, the president has the sole power of appointment, but the Senate can check that authority with its power to reject those nominations. Working from the original phrasing in the Constitution and subsequent enactments by the Congress, the Senate must consent to presidential appointments to the following types of offices: Supreme Court justices, all other lower federal judges, Cabinet secretaries, subcabinet executive branch posts, ambassadors, and other upper-tier governmental positions. In the twenty-first century, the Senate annually receives roughly twenty thousand such nominations.The great majority of these votes are on military promotions or civilian appointments to executive branch agencies (e.g., the Public Health Service) and these are routinely approved with no challenge or controversy and minimal Senate attention. There are about one to two thousand nominations to higher-level posts that do have more significant policy implications associated with them (i.e., the position has some manner of policy-making authority), and the probability of senatorial opposition increases. That being said, the Senate still usually approves them with little difficulty. To be confirmed and to legally take office, a nominee must receive a vote of approval by a majority of senators present and voting. Almost all nominees are approved in the Senate by unanimous consent, typically a voice vote, with little to no debate. A recorded roll call vote where it is clear how a particular senator voted on a nomination constitutes only a small percentage of all of these confirmation votes. Some types of offices usually garner greater levels of Senate opposition than others wherein senators wish to have their preferences accounted for by the president. Judicial appointments, particularly to the Supreme Court, with their lifetime tenure and increasingly prominent policy implications of federal court decisions, have been shown to ratchet up senators’ willingness to reject a nominee. The inverse is generally true for executive branch vacancies where appointees only serve for the time that their appointing president is in power—more deference is shown by senators to those selections of the president. Many senators consider it appropriate for the president to be given the greatest leeway in picking executive branch appointments, especially his Cabinet secretaries. The onus is on opponents of a nomination to advance why the nominee should be rejected—opponents must establish the grounds for opposition to a nomination. There historically have been four primary grounds of opposition. The first three concern the nominee’s personal character—competence and qualifications for the position to which the nominee has been appointed, potential conflicts of interest, and ethics. The fourth focuses on the nominee’s policy views and ideology. The legitimacy of policy-based and ideological opposition to a nominee
remains a source of continuing controversy. The first three are generally considered to be valid or acceptable reasons, the fourth less so. Resistance to a nomination commonly emanates from senators who are members of the opposition party and who are ideologically distant from the appointing president. From the 1960s onward, the greater frequency of divided government and expanded organized interest group mobilization with these appointments has worked to reinforce and increase the institutional tensions between the Senate and the White House with this advice and consent duty. When a controversy erupts over a nomination, overt hostility between these two branches has become the current norm. A strategy now more readily seen in the contemporary era compared to the past is senators’ greater willingness to obstruct presidential appointments by keeping nominees from ever receiving a confirmation floor vote. Commonly seen tactics as part of this general strategy include the relevant Senate committee not holding hearings nor considering a nomination at all (a necessary step before a floor vote can occur) and the use of holds and filibusters on specific nominees by individual senators that directly prevent a floor vote. See also Cabinets and Cabinet Formation; Checks and Balances; Executive,The; Judicial Selection and Nomination; Supreme Court. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STEPHEN R. ROUTH BIBLIOGRAPHY Abraham, Henry J. Justices, Presidents, and Senators: A History of U.S. Supreme Court Appointments from Washington to Clinton, rev. ed. Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1999. Epstein, Lee, and Jeffrey A. Segal. Advice and Consent:The Politics of Judicial Appointments. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. Fisher, Louis. Constitutional Conflicts between Congress and the President, 4th ed., rev. Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1997. Harris, Joseph P. The Advice and Consent of the Senate: A Study of the Confirmation of Appointments by the United States Senate. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1953. Mackenzie, G. Calvin. The Politics of Presidential Appointments. New York: Free Press, 1981.
Advocacy Coalition Networks Advocacy coalition networks, as conceptualized by Paul A. Sabatier and Hank Jenkins-Smith (1993), consist of groups of people who share a common belief system and participate in nontrivial, coordinated activities to transform their beliefs into public policy. Similar to iron triangles or policy whirlpools, advocacy coalition networks include organized interest groups, executive agencies, and members of relevant legislative committees. However, unlike the traditional conceptions of coalition groups, advocacy coalition networks recognize that many more participants are active in seeking to influence public policy, including members of the media, academic researchers, policy analysts, and comparable political actors at multiple levels of government. Advocacy coalition networks also differ from broader issue networks in that the participants of the coalition are united around shared core and secondary policy beliefs rather than a more encompassing focus on a particular policy area.
Advocacy Coalition Networks 19 Advocacy coalition networks operate in wider policy subsystems that include all actors who are involved in a particular policy area.This includes active participants in advocacy coalitions, as well as potential latent actors who may be mobilized in the future. In addition to coalition participants, the policy subsystem may include neutral actors who become involved through technical expertise and knowledge, such as bureaucrats and academics. Policy subsystems usually include several (typically two to four) advocacy coalition networks that compete to influence policy makers, but some quiescent subsystems may only have a single coalition. Because coalitions are united by shared belief systems, they should be relatively stable over time, especially when the policy debate centers on core beliefs and values. In 2002, Miles Burnett and Charles Davis provided a ready example from their analysis of the policy subsystem of U.S. national forest policy from 1960 to 1995. They identified three active coalitions. The first coalition was a commodity production coalition consisting of lumber firms, mill workers, some administrators in the U.S. Forest Service, local government officials, and members of Congress from districts economically affected by timber policy. The second coalition, pursuing conservation and environmental protection, consisted of environmental groups, water quality agencies, state and local fish and game departments, some U.S. Forest Service employees, and members of Congress who support conservation policies. The final coalition, formed around the principles of multiple use and sustained yield, includes forestry associations, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the U.S. Bureau of Land Management, and some U.S. Forest Service employees. Each coalition utilized varying strategies, from venue shopping to using policy information to attract media attention, all aimed at influencing policy outcomes affecting national forests.
ADVOCACY COALITION NETWORKS IN THE POLICY PROCESS Advocacy coalition networks play a central role in Sabatier and Jenkins-Smith’s framework of the policy process, the advocacy coalition framework (ACF). The ACF was developed as an alternative to the traditional stages model, which was seen as too simplistic and linear to be an accurate description of the policy process, and too limited in its utility to show causal mechanisms and generate testable hypotheses. The ACF focuses on the roles of information and belief systems and tracks policy change advocacy coalition networks within policy subsystems over long periods (usually a decade or more). Under the ACF, minor or secondary aspects of policy can change as coalitions compete within a policy subsystem to influence decisions of sovereign policy makers. Importantly, advocacy coalition networks engage in policy-oriented learning, processing both technical policy information and political feedback, to update their strategies as well as secondary aspects of their belief systems. Incremental change can result from this type of policy-oriented learning. Major, nonincremental policy changes are unlikely without significant shifts in factors external to the subsystem, like socioeconomic conditions, public
attitudes, governing coalitions, and constitutional structures. Still, significant external shocks do not necessitate major policy change. Rather, minority or nondominant coalitions must skillfully use these external perturbations to gain an advantage in the subsystem that would allow them to institute core policy changes that would not have been possible under the previously dominant coalition.
APPLICATIONS AND CRITIQUES OF THE ADVOCACY COALITION FRAMEWORK Developed around environmental politics in the United States, most studies using the ACF have addressed policy subsystems such as auto pollution control, public lands policy, and water policy. However, it also has been applied successfully to other policy areas, including national security, education, and drug policy. Though it was developed with the U.S. political system in mind, it has been used to analyze policy change in international settings as well, including roads policy in Britain, water quality policy in the Netherlands, and gender discrimination policy in Australia. Through these varied applications, several critiques and modifications to the original framework have been offered. A 1996 study of the education policy by Michael Mintrom and Sandra Vergari noted the difficulty in predicting when major policy change might occur because external shocks were, themselves, not a sufficient cause. Several studies have suggested also that more attention be paid to issues of collective action because the primary focus of the framework centers on coalitions of varied political actors. Several applications of the ACF have found less stable coalitions than the framework originally hypothesized, leading to a distinction between nascent and mature policy subsystems. In newly formed subsystems, coalitions may be much more fluid as the stakes of the policy area may be initially unclear. As more information is generated, coalitions should become more stable and entrenched. Finally, although advocacy coalition networks have been conceptualized under the auspices of the ACF, similar concepts of coalitions and issue networks have been used also in other frameworks of the policy process. In the multiple streams framework of agenda setting, John Kingdon (1984) noted that “policy communities” made up of bureaucrats, congressional staffers, think-tank researchers, and academics centered around a single policy area play a crucial role in generating policy solutions and alternatives. Policy entrepreneurs, meanwhile, actively pursue policy change by matching these solutions to emerging problems and political conditions. In Frank Baumgartner and Bryan Jones’s (1993) punctuated equilibrium framework, groups of interests compete to exert influence in a policy subsystem. These interests actively seek to structure the decision-making authority to give themselves a policy monopoly or dominant control that leads to incremental policy change. Major policy change results from minority interests successfully altering the policy image to give themselves control over the policy subsystem. Concepts similar to advocacy coalition networks are even prominent in policy innovation and diffusion models, where issue networks and
20 Advocacy Groups advocacy groups play a strong role in diffusing new ideas from one governmental entity to another. See also Coalition Formation; Interest Groups and Lobbies; Public Policy Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DANIEL C. LEWIS BIBLIOGRAPH Y Baumgartner, Frank R., and Bryan D. Jones. Agendas and Instability in American Politics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993. Burnett, Miles, and Charles Davis. “Getting Out the Cut: Politics and National Forest Timber Harvests, 1960–1995.” Administration and Society 34, no. 2 (2002): 202–228. Heclo, Hugh. “Issue Networks and the Executive Establishment.” In The New American Political System, edited by Anthony King, 87–124. Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute, 1978. Kingdon, John W. Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies. Boston: Little, Brown, 1984. Mintrom, Michael, and Sandra Vergari. “Advocacy Coalitions, Policy Entrepreneurs, and Policy Change.” Policy Studies Journal 24, no. 3 (1996): 126–148. Sabatier, Paul A., and Hank Jenkins-Smith. Policy Change and Learning: An Advocacy Coalition Approach. Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1993. Schlager, Edella, and William Blomquist. “A Comparison of Three Emerging Theories of the Policy Process.” Political Research Quarterly 49, no. 3 (1996): 651–672.
Advocacy Groups In political science, advocacy groups form a subgroup of interest groups. Interest groups can represent the self-interest of their members or a broader public interest. Public interest groups also are called advocacy groups in that they seek to promote a common or collective good. But this definition is not universally shared. Some scholars, including Ross Stephens and Nelson Wikstrom (2007), assign the term public interest groups to lobbying organizations that represent the interest of governmental entities, such as the National League of Cities. Another ambiguity involves the legitimacy of advocacy activities.Traditionally, scholars have accepted advocacy groups as essential components of pluralist democracy, while more recently issue advocacy has been associated with negative forms of political communication.
BRIEF HISTORY Advocacy groups can trace their origin to political movements in the nineteenth century. Organizations with dedicated leaders and dues-paying members emerged to pursue a variety of political causes and seek fundamental constitutional changes, such as the abolition of slavery or suffrage for women. Improved literacy made it possible to print newspapers and pamphlets to mobilize supporters and educate the public. Advocacy groups survived over time by adapting their goals and tactics to changing political conditions. The NAACP, for instance, was founded in 1909 to promote civil rights, as well as educational and economic opportunities, for people of color. After women obtained the right to vote in 1920, activists reconstituted themselves as the League of Women Voters to educate women about their new right, as well as to promote good government reforms.
Advocacy for animals, plants, and unique landscapes has its roots in the nineteenth century as well. The idea of conservation and the creation of national parks established a foundation for the contemporary environmental movement. Today, the high-tech revolution and new forms of communication have made the mobilization of supporters much easier, but also has facilitated the spread of misinformation.
SCOPE, PURPOSE, AND IRS RULES The organizational structure of advocacy groups varies, depending on the cause they are championing. Some are international in scope, and they may have offices in major world cities. U.S. advocacy groups with a national focus tend to have their headquarters in the Washington, D.C., area, with chapters spread across the country. Quite a few groups promote statewide, regional, or local causes, and their geographical presence is limited accordingly. The incorporation of advocacy groups is regulated by state law, while tax-exempt status comes under the purview of the Internal Revenue Service (IRS). The tax code makes two distinctions that delineate the limits imposed on lobbying and political involvements of advocacy groups. One is the distinction between section 501(c)(3) and 501(c)(4) organizations. Those 501(c)(3) entities, including foundations, have to be organized and operated for purposes such as religious, charitable, educational, scientific, or cultural objectives. Among taxexempt organizations, 501(c)(3) groups enjoy the most favorable tax treatment. Not only are they exempt from the federal income tax, but they also can accept tax deductible donations. In return for the favorable tax treatment, 501(c)(3) entitiess are limited in their advocacy work and lobbying. In 1934, new tax law stipulated that “no substantial part” of the organization’s activities could be used to influence the legislative process. In 1976, Congress passed legislation that allowed 501(c) (3) organizations either to continue under the “no substantial part” clause or under new rules that set specific dollar amounts depending on the size of the organization. Congress and the IRS settled on generous limits to avoid violating First Amendment rights. The 501(c)(3) groups can work also within IRS rules by presenting their advocacy work as educational efforts and by using volunteers rather than paid lobbyists to speak to legislators. They also can create 501(c)(4) subsidiaries. The appropriate Internal Revenue Code for tax-exempt organizations that want to make advocacy their major mission is section 501(c)(4). It covers entities that seek to promote general social welfare and civic improvements. The activities have to support a public-serving cause; they cannot be of a membership-serving nature. Financial support for 501(c)(4) comes in the form of dues and non-tax-deductible donations from members who believe in the cause. Major 501(c)(4) groups have foundations as affiliates, to which tax-deductible donations for educational and other appropriate purposes can be directed. The second important distinction in the federal tax code is between (1) lobbying and seeking to influence the policymaking process versus (2) partisan political activities and electioneering. Neither 501(c)(3) nor 501(c)(4) organizations can
Affirmative Action 21 engage in election activities, by which the IRS means explicitly supporting or opposing candidates running for political office. However, for more direct electoral involvement, 501(c)(4) entities can create political organizations under section 527. The Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971 (FECA), as amended, limits the amount of money section 527 entities can spend for or against candidates. However, FECA created new ambiguities, which the Supreme Court tried to resolve by distinguishing between express advocacy, such as mentioning a candidate, and issue advocacy, or focusing on a policy issue.The express form of political communication falls under FECA, but issue advocacy does not. See also Interest Groups and Lobbies; Political Action Committee (PAC); Public Interest Groups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SIEGRUN FOX FREYSS BIBLIOGRAPH Y Berry, Jeffrey M. The Interest Group Society, 3rd ed. New York: Longman, 1997. Boris, Elizabeth T., and Jeff Krehely. “Civic Participation and Advocacy.” In The State of Nonprofit America, edited by Lester M. Salamon, 299–330. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 2003. Dwyre, Diana. “Campaigning Outside the Law: Interest Group Issue Advocacy.” In Interest Group Politics, 6th ed., edited by Allan J. Cigler and Burdett A. Loomis, 141–159. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2002. Fowler, Linda L., Constantine J. Spiliotes, and Lynn Vavreck. “Group Advocacy in the New Hampshire Presidential Primary.” In The Interest Group Connection: Electioneering, Lobbying, and Policymaking in Washington, 2nd ed., edited by Paul S. Herrnson, Ronald G. Shaiko, and Clyde Wilcox, 89–111. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2005. O’Neill, Michael. The Third America.The Emergence of the Nonprofit Sector in the United States. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1989. Skocpol, Theda. “How Americans Became Civic.” In Civic Engagement in American Democracy, edited by Theda Skocpol and Morris P. Fiorina, 27–80. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1999. Smucker, Robert. The Nonprofit Lobbying Guide, 2nd ed. Washington, D.C.: Independent Sector, 1999. Stephens, G. Ross, and Nelson Wikstrom. American Intergovernmental Relations: A Fragmented Federal Polity. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.
Affirmative Action Redistribution of wealth and other benefits is a common function of government. Controversies over the extent of redistribution are the principal basis of politics in many countries. When this redistribution is based on characteristics acquired at birth, such as race, ethnicity, caste, or gender, controversy often increases because the redistribution may exacerbate group rivalries and be inconsistent with other values, such as equal protection of the law. Such redistribution is often called affirmative action. Economist Thomas Sowell, the principal scholar comparing such policies, has identified them in such diverse counties as India, Malaysia, Nigeria, Sri Lanka, and the United States. Additionally, more limited versions exist in Britain, Canada, France, New Zealand, and Pakistan. The origins of affirmative action vary by country. In the United States, the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution and almost all civil rights laws prohibit discrimination and require governments and many private entities to treat all persons equally. As the civil rights movement changed from advocacy of race-blind equal opportunity programs to race-conscious
programs, which some saw as necessary to achieve proportional representation, affirmative action became the preferred tool in the areas of employment, higher education, public education, and voting rights. Such policies are now deeply embedded in both the public and private sector of American life as a device to overcome the legacies of past discrimination, create diversity, and attract political support from under-represented groups. In India and Malaysia, affirmative action programs began under British colonial rule and have survived independence and expanded their coverage. In India, during the 1950s and 1960s free secondary school opportunities and, in some states, free books, supplies, and meals were offered to members of select castes and tribes. Later, university slots were preserved for them. Such actions helped to unite various Hindu castes behind Hindu political parties. In Malaysia, nationalist parties sought to reduce the influence of Chinese and Indians in that country by providing education and employment benefits to the native Malay and bumipateras or “sons of the soil” populations. The controversy over affirmative action programs stems from several factors. First, most legal systems, including the United Nations (UN) Charter, proclaim the principle of equal treatment for all individuals.When affirmative action programs promote equal treatment or when they promote preferences, sometimes called reverse discrimination, has received careful study. Such studies are complex and often not welcomed by some stakeholders who often have strong association with group identities and politics. Second, disagreements exist over which groups should benefit from affirmative action programs. In many countries, such as Britain and New Zealand, the policies benefit demographic minorities, but in some cases the number of beneficiaries has spread to encompass populations not envisioned at the programs’ inception. In the United States, for example, the moral driver for affirmative action has been the more than three-hundred-year history of mistreatment of African Americans and Native Americans. The principal beneficiaries, however, often have been white women, as well as Asian Americans and Hispanic Americans, some of whom faced discrimination based on national origin or ancestry while others are more recent immigrants. In India and Malaysia, the majority of the population is entitled to preferences. Third, affirmative action programs may be justified as temporary remedies, but in fact the inequalities that the programs are designed to address are difficult to eliminate. In the United States, judicial rulings require that governments (but not private organizations) must have a compelling interest to use racial classifications by making findings that they are remedying discrimination for which they are responsible. Affirmative action programs also must be narrowly tailored to remedy that discrimination, which may restrict the scope of beneficiary groups and benefits, but litigation to enforce those judicial principles is often lengthy and costly to undertake. For all of these reasons, affirmative action programs remain controversial in the countries that have adopted them. Elites sometimes see affirmative action as a moral undertaking, but the preferences rarely threaten their status. Further, they see these
22 Aflaq, Michel programs as useful symbolic policies adding to social stability or as marketing tools to obtain votes or to sell products. Beneficiary groups seek to expand the reach of affirmative action programs. As these programs become bureaucratically institutionalized, they develop infrastructures supported by government, corporate, foundation, and educational funds. Opponents are rarely so well organized or funded. They often have majority public opinion support, however, and can invoke with some sympathy in legal forums defending the principle of equal protection. The global economy and the growing migration of peoples are likely to leave most countries increasingly multiethnic and multireligious.This will add to the difficulty of reconciling the political value of eliminating inequalities with the legal value of treating individuals equally.Whatever it may be called in the future and whatever form it takes, something like affirmative action programs will continue to be controversial in a number of countries worldwide. See also Caste System; Civil and Political Rights; Civil Rights Movement; Discrimination; Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights, Positive Discrimination; Racial Discrimination; Reverse Discrimination; Segregation and Desegregation; Xenophobia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GEORGE R. LA NOUE BIBLIOGRAPH Y Becker, Gary S. The Economics of Discrimination. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971. Callister, Paul. Special Measures to Reduce Ethnic Disadvantage in New Zealand: An Examination of their Role. Wellington, N.Z.: Institute of Policy Studies, 2007. Galanter, Marc. Competing Inequalities: Law and the Backward Classes in India. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984. Graham, Hugh D. The Civil Rights Era: Origins and Development of National Policy 1960–1972. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990. Guinier, Lani, and Gerald Torres. The Miner’s Canary: Enlisting Race, Resisting Power,Transforming Democracy. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2002. Kymlicka, Will. Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights. New York: Oxford University Press 1995. Jesudason, James. Ethnicity and the Economy:The State, Chinese Business, and Multinationals in Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1989. Leiter, Samuel, and William M. Leiter. Affirmative Action and Anti-discrimination Law and Policy. Albany: State University of New York, 2002. Skrentny, John David. The Ironies of Affirmative Action: Politics, Culture, and Justice in America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996. Sowell, Thomas. Affirmative Action around the World: An Empirical Study. New Haven, Conn.:Yale University Press, 2004. Thernstrom, Stephan, and Abigail Thernstrom. America in Black and White: One Nation Indivisible. New York: Simon and Shuster, 1997.
Aflaq, Michel A Greek Orthodox Christian Syrian, Michel Aflaq (1910– 1989) became one of two founders, along with his Muslim countryman, Salah al-Din Bitar, of the Baath (Ba’th; “rebirth” or “resurrection”) Party in the early 1940s. He was regarded as the party’s leading thinker. Aflaq considered Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser to be a charismatic leader for the Arabs and, with the idea that Baathists could play a leading role in what he saw as the beginning of a pan-Arab
state, lent his support to the formation of the United Arab Republic (UAR) in 1958. However, Baathists were disappointed with their actual role in the UAR, leading some of them, not including Aflaq, to endorse its breakup in 1961. Aflaq participated in abortive attempts to form another UAR in 1963, following Baathist coups in both Iraq and Syria. He gave up his position as Secretary General of the National (i.e., pan-Arab) Command in 1965, and took refuge in Europe and Brazil after a radical military faction of the Baath, which he opposed, took power in Damascus in 1966. After the Baathist takeover in Iraq in 1968, Aflaq returned to the Middle East, at first living mainly in Beirut before moving to Baghdad, where he became Secretary General of the Iraqisponsored Baathist National Command (a bitter rival to the Syrian-backed National Command). The position was essentially symbolic. Aflaq allegedly converted to Islam late in life. Aflaq was involved in politics from childhood, as his nationalist father suffered imprisonment both by the Ottomans, who ruled the country until 1918, and by France, to whom the League of Nations assigned Syria as a mandated territory. At age eighteen, he went to Paris to study history, philosophy, and literature at the Sorbonne, where he established an Arab student organization before returning home in 1932. Aflaq worked as a history teacher in secondary school for the next ten years. In Paris, he was influenced by Marxist ideas and even contributed to a communist periodical, but never joined the Communist Party, about which he apparently had reservations. Eventually, in his own words, he “became disenchanted and felt betrayed” when the Popular Front government of Leon Blum in France failed to end France’s colonialist policies. This caused Aflaq to think instead of creating a synthesis of socialism and Arab nationalism. His three attempts to win a seat in the Syrian parliament during the 1940s failed, apparently at least in part because of electoral fraud, resulting in Aflaq’s disillusionment with the democratic route to change. His political activities led to imprisonment for short periods. Aflaq briefly held a cabinet position as minister of education in 1949, after which he decided to play the role of party philosopher rather than office holder. He published numerous essays and short stories portraying the ills of traditional Arab society and calling for change along socialist, democratic, and nationalist lines. Aflaq was not a dynamic speaker but he was effective in talking to small groups, with whom his interaction is said to have been much like that with students during his teaching days. He was noted for his “frugal” lifestyle and for refraining from using his influence for personal gain. See also Baathism; Middle Eastern Politics and Society; PanArabism and Pan-Islamism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GLENN E. PERRY BIBLIOGRAPHY Aflak [Aflaq], Michel. Choice of Texts from the Ba’th Party Founder’s Thought. N.p.: Arab Ba’th Socialist Party, 1977. Aflaq, Michel. In the Cause of the Baath:The Complete Political Writings of Michel Aflaq, 2009, http://albaath.online.fr/index.htm.
African Political Economy 23 Babikian, N. Salem. “A Partial Reconstruction of Michel Aflaq’s Thought: The Role of Islam in the Formulation of Arab Nationalism.” The Muslim World 67 (October 1977): 280–294. Binder, Leonard. The Ideological Revolution in the Middle East. New York: Wiley, 1964. Devlin, John F. “Aflaq, Michel.” In Political Leaders of the Contemporary Middle East and North Africa: A Biographical Dictionary, edited by Bernard Reich, 32–39. New York: Greenwood, 1990. Khadduri, Majid. Arab Contemporaries:The Role of Personalities in Politics. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973.
Africa, Anglophone See Anglophone Africa.
Africa, Francophone See Francophone Africa.
Africa, Health Policy in See Multiple Streams Theory.
Africa, Postindependence See Postindependent Africa, Politics and Governance in.
African Political Economy African political economy is a field of study within political science that analyzes the relationship between the state and the market in Africa. This field is generally geographically delimited to include only sub-Saharan Africa. The major preoccupation of scholarship in this discipline has been analyzing the role of the state in promoting economic growth and poverty alleviation.
THE FAILURE OF STATE-LED DEVELOPMENT As sub-Saharan African countries gained independence (primarily in the 1950s and 1960s), policy makers and scholars alike emphasized the importance of the state in driving development in the new African countries. Due to the weakness of the indigenous capitalist classes in these countries, it was assumed the state would lead the development process. In both socialist countries, like Tanzania, and more marketoriented countries, like Nigeria, the state subsidized industries, manipulated exchange rates, and restricted international trade with the goal of encouraging industrialization. However, by the early 1980s, the failures of the prevailing development strategy had become clear. Most countries in Africa were experiencing a decline in growth rates, an erosion of per capita income, and an increase in external debt. A World Bank investigation into the economic crisis laid the blame squarely on the interventionist policies adopted by African governments. The publication, which became known as the Berg Report (World Bank, 1981), argued that these policies had undermined the functioning of the market and had created bloated public sectors.
The major puzzle motivating academic research was why African governments had not abandoned these interventionist policies once it became obvious they were not stimulating growth.The key insight of the political economy literature was that governments often secured political gains from economic mismanagement. Robert Bates (1981) influentially argued that governments had incentives to distort the operation of the economy to secure cheap food for organizationally powerful urbanites at the expense of the rural population. Richard Sandbrook (1985) emphasized that African leaders depended on the disbursement of patronage to maintain political support, which resulted in poor policy choices and incompetent administration.
STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT AND EXTERNAL ACCOUNTABILITY In response to the recommendations of the Berg Report, the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) decided to make future loans to African governments conditional on a reduction in state intervention in the economy. The structural adjustment programs (SAPs) countries were required to adopt in return for new loans involved cutting the fiscal deficit, devaluing exchange rates, and liberalizing trade policy. The prescribed policies were highly contentious within Africa. The United Nations Economic Commission for Africa challenged the Berg Report’s explanation for the economic crisis, instead blaming colonialism and Africa’s subordinate position in the global economy. Many countries experienced “IMF riots” in which citizens protested against the austerity measures proscribed by the SAPs. However, in the face of balance-of-payments crises, most African countries eventually had little choice but to adopt SAPs. The political science literature on structural adjustment focused on the interaction between regime type and economic reform. The initial consensus was that SAPs could only be implemented by authoritarian governments, because draconian measures were necessary to implement unpopular economic reforms. However, Nicolas van de Walle (2001) demonstrated that authoritarian governments were not any more successful in implementing reform than their democratic counterparts in Africa. He argued that both autocrats and democratically elected leaders depend on the allocation of patronage to remain in power. As a result, they have all resisted reducing public sector employment, even as they have cut educational and medical programming. Although a few countries, such as Ghana, have experienced sustained growth following economic reform, SAPs have brought limited benefits overall.
STATE CAPACITY AND PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT In the aftermath of structural adjustment, the new consensus was that African governments needed to play a greater constructive role in fostering development; they could not simply engage in fewer negative interventions. Governments must—at a minimum—provide basic law and order if they are to encourage their citizens to be economically productive. In addition, economic development requires public investment
24 African Political Thought in infrastructure, education, and health. Both academics and policy makers emphasized the need to build the capacity of African states to deliver basic goods and services to their citizens. This view corresponded with the United Nations’ development of the Millennium Development Goals, which commit member states to increasing access to primary education and basic health care. Furthermore, in contrast to the earlier consensus that citizen participation would hinder economic reform, the new argument was that citizens should drive the development process because they had an interest in ensuring economic improvement and poverty alleviation. International agencies adopted the mantra of “participatory development” in the hope that domestic pressure would be more successful than external pressure in encouraging economic development. As a result, many observers were optimistic about the reintroduction of multiparty elections and the decentralization of government in Africa during the 1990s. Democratization and decentralization were thought to increase citizens’ ability to demand development. In a similar vein, the proliferation of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and civil society associations was encouraged as means of delivering development. Later studies have been more uncertain about the developmental impact of democracy and participation. David Stasavage (2005) demonstrates that democratization is associated with increased government spending on primary education. However, many scholars have argued that elections and NGOs simply provide new venues for preexisting political practices; established politicians will stay in power by disbursing patronage to their supporters, rather than providing programming with broad welfare benefits. Certainly, neither donor conditionality nor domestic participation has initiated a quick recovery of African economies. In contrast, recent research has found that structural factors, such as ethnic diversity and geography, explain a significant component of African governments’ poor performance in providing public goods. A longer view of the development process may be necessary, given the importance of historical factors in explaining Africa’s weak economic performance. See also African Union; Authoritarianism, African; Political Economy; Postindependent Africa, Politics and Governance in. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . KATE BALDWIN BIBLIOGRAPH Y Ake, Claude. Democracy and Development in Africa. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1996. Bates, Robert. Markets and States in Tropical Africa:The Political Basis of Agricultural Policies. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981. Chabal, Patrick, and Jean-Pascal Daloz. Africa Works:The Political Instrumentalization of Disorder. Bloomington: International African Institute, in association with James Currey and Indiana University Press, 1999. Habyarimana, James, Macartan Humphreys, Daniel Posner, and Jeremy Weinstein. Coethnicity: Diversity and the Dilemmas of Collective Action. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2009. Herbst, Jeffrey. States and Power in Africa: Comparative Lessons in Authority and Control. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000.
Mkandawire, Thandika, and Adebayo Olukoshi, eds. Between Liberalisation and Oppression:The Politics of Structural Adjustment in Africa. Dakar, Senegal: Codesria, 1995. Sandbrook, Richard. The Politics of Africa’s Economic Stagnation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985. Stasavage, David. “Democracy and Education Spending in Africa.” American Journal of Political Science 49 (April 2005): 343–358. van de Walle, Nicholas. African Economies and the Politics of Permanent Crisis, 1979–1999. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001. World Bank. Accelerated Development in Sub-Saharan Africa: An Agenda for Action (“Berg Report”). Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1981.
African Political Thought Modern African political thought refers to the political theories and ideologies enunciated in the speeches, autobiographies, writings, and policy statements of African statesmen and scholars. It varies according to historical circumstances and constantly changing African and world political environments. Political theory and political practice are inextricably linked, which makes for six distinctive periods of African history, each with its own dominant theories: indigenous Africa; imperial Africa; colonial Africa; and (early, middle, and late) modern or postcolonial Africa.
EARLY MODERN AFRICAN NATIONALISM Early modern African nationalism was developed in the late nineteenth century by British-educated elites in West Africa. In Sierra Leone, James Africanus B. Horton, a doctor of medicine, challenged racist theories and argued that Africans were as capable of achieving “civilization” as Europeans, both biologically and psychologically. He advocated the development of “modern” states in Africa. In Liberia, Edward Wilmot Blyden, politician, writer, and diplomat, developed an ideology of racial pride and nonacculturation and advocated African development through an authentic indigenous Africa, based on an African personality, history, and culture. He also called for the establishment of a West African state. In the Gold Coast [Ghana], Joseph E. Casely Hayford, a lawyer, advocated modernization from indigenous African roots. He believed that African nations, civilization, and political institutions could be revived and modernized to cater to modern needs in an “African way.” He also called for the creation of a West African nation.
PAN-AFRICANISM The next major movement in African political thought, pan-Africanism, was prominently promoted by the African Diaspora—scholars and activists of African descent living in other nations. Pan-Africanism is a political and cultural ideal and movement born in the 1900s aimed at regrouping and mobilizing Africans in Africa and in the Diaspora against foreign domination, oppression, and discrimination. Political pan-Africanism is linked to African nationalism (i.e., the struggle for independence), while economic panAfricanism is linked to the struggle against imperialism and neocolonialism. The major proponents of pan-Africanism in North America were W. E. B. Du Bois, Marcus Garvey, Paul L. Robeson, and George Padmore. The so-called back
African Political Thought 25 to Africa movement (i.e., the return of the African slaves to their continent of origin) mainly advocated by Garvey, led to the creation of Sierra Leone in 1801 and Liberia in 1817. Cultural pan-Africanism was expressed through Ne.gritude, a cultural movement reasserting African culture, values, and traditions as part of the common heritage of mankind. Ne. gritude emerged in France in the 1930s among African and Afro-Caribbean elites, notably Aimé Césaire, LéonGontran Damas, and Léopold Sédar Senghor.
social, and cultural progress of the people. This can occur only when foreign domination has been totally eliminated.
AFRICAN MARXIST REGIMES
Modern African nationalism is a political ideal and movement aimed a liberating Africans from European colonial political domination, cultural oppression, social exclusion, and economic exploitation. The goal was to achieve political independence as a prelude to economic independence. In Kwame Nkrumah’s words, “Seek ye first the political kingdom and all else will be added unto you.” The challenge of African nationalism was to build viable nations out of more than fifty artificially created states, most of which attained independence in the 1960s.
The period 1969 to 1975 saw the emergence of African Marxist regimes—many of them military—which adopted Marxism-Leninism as the state ideology. However, in general, the self-proclaimed “Marxist” African leaders did not genuinely believe in this ideology but simply used it an instrument of political domination and control of the people. The African countries (and leaders) who adopted this ideology were Angola (Agostinho Neto and José Eduardo dos Santos); Benin (Mathieu Kérékou); Congo-Brazzaville (Marien Ngouabi, Joachim Yhombi-Opango, and Denis Sassou-Nguesso); Ethiopia (Mengistu Haile Mariam); Guinea-Bissau (Luís Cabral and João Bernardo Vieira); Madagascar (Didier Ratsiraka); Mozambique (Samora Machel and Joaquim Chissano); Namibia (Sam Nujoma); Somalia (Mohammed Siad Barre); and Zimbabwe (Robert Mugabe), 1980–1995. Marxism as a state ideology was officially abandoned everywhere in Africa by 1996.
AFRICAN SOCIALISM
AFRICAN POPULIST REGIMES
African socialism is a radical form of African nationalism. Influenced by Marxism-Leninism (though officially nonMarxist), African socialism rejects capitalism as being alien to African culture and traditions. Instead, it is based on the African tradition of communalism, according to which the group takes precedence over the individual. The socialist model of development includes a state-led development strategy based on planning, land reform, industrialization, and the nationalization of the economy. The foreign policy of African Socialist states is pan-Africanist. The African countries (and leaders) who adopted this ideology between 1960 and 1970 were Algeria (Ahmed Ben Bella); Ghana (Kwame Nkrumah, 1962); Guinea (Ahmed Sékou Touré); Mali (Modibo Keïta), and Tanzania (Julius K. Nyerere, 1968). Senegal (Léopold Senghor) and Kenya (Jomo Kenyatta) paid lip service to African socialism but did not actually implement it.
Emerging in the early 1980s, African populism borrows elements of both African socialism and Marxism-Leninism, and places the people at the center of democracy and development in Africa. Its main policy is to satisfy the basic needs of the peasantry, the largest and poorest social class in Africa. African populist regimes advocate popular democracy and people-centered development. African populist regimes include Burkina Faso (Thomas Sankara); Ghana (Jerry Rawlings); Libya (Muammar Qaddafi) since 1977; and Zimbabwe (Robert Mugabe) since 1995).
MODERN AFRICAN NATIONALISM
AFRICAN THEORIES OF REVOLUTION Frantz Fanon, a French-born psychiatrist from Martinique who joined the Algerian revolution, posits that under the guidance of revolutionary intellectuals, the peasantry is a revolutionary force in Africa. He argues that it is only through violence that the colonized people can achieve their freedom. For Fanon (1968), decolonization is a violent revolution that destroys the social and political structures of the colonial regime, liberates consciousness, and creates a new man. He argues that violence is a cleansing force, but that it must be accompanied by political education if it is to be truly emancipatory. Amilcar Cabral, an agronomist and leader of the liberation struggle in Guinea-Bissau, sees culture as a form of resistance to foreign domination. Cabral (1972) argues that culture is a weapon against the imperialist power; it becomes the instrument through which people reclaim their history. For him, the main goal of the liberation movement is not only national independence and the defeat of colonialism, but also the economic,
AFRICAN THEORIES OF DEMOCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT Three African scholars (Claude Ake, Daniel Osabu-Kle, and Mueni wa Muiu) have recently developed Africa-centered theories of democracy and development. Nigerian scholar-activist Claude Ake notes that in the postindependence era, the African elites have privatized the African state for their own benefit, leading to the marginalization of the African people. Ake (1996, 1) argues that “the problem is not so much that development has failed as that it was never really on the agenda in the first place.” Like the populists, he advocates popular development (in which people are the end, agent, and means of development), and popular democracy (which emphasizes political, social, and economic rights). Ghanaian scholar Daniel Osabu-Kle (2000) starts from the assumptions that indigenous African political culture was essentially democratic and consensual, based on the accountability of the rulers to the people. He argues that only a democracy compatible with the African cultural environment (i.e., a modernized form of Africa’s indigenous democracy) is capable of achieving the political conditions for successful development in Africa. Mueni wa Muiu introduces a new paradigm to study the African state. According to A New Paradigm of the African State: Fundi wa Afrika (2009), the current African predicament may
26 African Politics and Society be explained by the systematic destruction of African states and the dispossession, exploitation, and marginalization of African people through successive historical processes (from the trans-Atlantic slave trade to globalization). Muiu argues that a new, viable, and modern African state based on five political entities—the Federation of African States—should be built on the functional remnants of indigenous African political systems and institutions and be based on African values, traditions, and culture. See also African Union; Pan-Africanism; Postindependent Africa, Politics and Governance in. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GUY MARTIN BIBLIOGRAPH Y Ake, Claude. Democracy and Development in Africa. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1996. Boele van Hensbroek, Pieter. Political Discourses in African Thought, 1860 to the Present. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1999. Cabral, Amilcar. Revolution in Guinea. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1972. Fanon, Frantz. The Wretched of the Earth. New York: Grove, 1968. Idahosa, P. L. E. The Populist Dimension to African Political Thought. Trenton, N.J.: Africa World Press, 2003. Muiu, Mueni wa, and Guy Martin. A New Paradigm of the African State: Fundi wa Afrika. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009. Mutiso, Gideon-Cyrus M., and S. W. Rohio, eds. Readings in African Political Thought. London: Heinemann Educational Books, 1975. Nkrumah, Kwame. Towards Colonial Freedom: Africa in the Struggle against World Imperialism. London: Heinemann, 1962. Nyerere, Julius K. Ujamaa: Essays on Socialism. London: Oxford University Press, 1968. Osabu-Kle, Daniel. Compatible Cultural Democracy:The Key to Development in Africa. Toronto: UTP Higher Education, 2000. Rosberg, Carl G., and Thomas M. Callaghy, eds. Socialism in Sub-Saharan Africa: A New Assessment. Berkeley: Institute of International Studies/ University of California, 1979. Young, Crawford. Ideology and Development in Africa. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1982.
African Politics and Society Throughout this entry, Africa refers to sub-Saharan Africa, the region south of the Saharan Desert that is bounded in the north and west by Mauritania; in the east by Eritrea, Ethiopia, Sudan, and Somalia; and in the south by the Republic of South Africa. The contemporary political history of Africa is marked by imperialism, the expulsion of foreign powers and settler elites, and the postindependence travails of its roughly fifty states.
IMPERIALISM Africa was among the last regions of the globe to be subject to imperial rule. In the so-called scramble for Africa, as described by Thomas Pakenham in his 1991 book of that title, the British and French seized major portions of the continent; Belgium, Germany, Italy, Portugal, and Spain seized lesser holdings as well. During the imperial era, most of Africa’s people were subject to the rule of bureaucrats in London, Lisbon, and Paris rather than being ruled by leaders they themselves had chosen. Two states in Africa had long been independent: Ethiopia from time immemorial and Liberia since 1847. In 1910, the
settlers of South Africa succeeded in securing independence from British bureaucrats. European immigrants settled in several territories: Kenya in the east, the Rhodesias in the center, and portions of southern Africa. Conflicts between the settler populations and colonial bureaucrats characterized the politics of the colonial era, as white settlers strove to control the colonial governments of these colonies and to dominate their native populations. While Africa’s peoples fought against the seizure of their territories, they lacked the wealth, organization, and weaponry to prevail. The situation changed, however, during World War I (1914–1918) and World War II (1939–1945). The wars eroded the capacity and will of Europeans to occupy foreign lands, while economic development increased the capacity and desire of Africa’s people to end European rule. During World War II, the allied powers maintained important bases in Africa, some poised to support campaigns in the Mediterranean and others to backstop armies fighting in Asia. After World War II, the colonial powers promoted the development of African export industries, seeking thereby to earn funds to repay loans contracted with the United States to finance the war. The increase in exports led to the creation of a class of prosperous farmers and the rise of merchants and lawyers who provided services to the export industries. As World War II gave way to the cold war, the United States began to stockpile precious metals and invested in expanding Africa’s mines, refining its ores, and transporting its precious metals overseas. That Africa’s economic expansion took place at the time of Europe’s decline prepared the field for its political liberation.The one was prospering while the other was not, and their relative power shifted accordingly.
NATIONALIST REVOLT Among the first Africans to rally against European rule were urban elites, whose aspirations were almost immediately checked by resident officials of the colonial powers. Workers who staffed the ports and railways that tied local producers to foreign markets soon joined them. In the rural areas, peasants rallied to the struggle against colonial rule, some protesting intensified demands for labor and the use of coercion rather than wage payment to secure it. Among the primary targets of the rural population were the chiefs, who had been tasked by colonial rulers with taxing the profits of farmers and regulating the use of their lands. Thus did the Kenya Africa Union support dock strikes in Mombasa and the intimidation of chiefs in the native reserves. Similarly, the Convention Peoples’ Party backed strikes in the Gold Coast (now Ghana) port cities of Tema and Takoradi, while seeking to “destool” chiefs inland. Adding to the rise of nationalist protest was global inflation. Reconstruction in Europe and rearmament in the United States ran up against shortages of materials and higher prices in global markets. Throughout Africa and the developing world, consumers rallied to protest against these increases, tending to blame them on European monopolies—such as in Ghana, where the people focused their anger on the United Africa Company—or local trading communities—such as the Indian merchants in Kenya or Lebanese traders in Sierra Leone.
African Politics and Society 27
After its independence, Kwame Nkrumah (second from right) became prime minister of Ghana. Within a few years, he amassed substantial power before being toppled by a military coup in 1966. SOURCE: © Bettmann/Corbis
The economic development of Africa thus transformed the social composition and political preferences of its people. It was in the postwar period, however, that independence was achieved by the vast majority of Africa’s people. At first, political liberty arrived in a trickle—to the Sudan in 1956 and Ghana in 1957. Soon thereafter independence came as a flood, with twenty-nine French- and English-speaking states securing independence from 1960 to 1965, the Portuguese territories in the mid-1970s, and the settler redoubts of southern Africa in the last decades of the twentieth century.
THE POSTINDEPENDENCE PERIOD The optimism of the nationalist period very quickly gave way to pessimism, as governments that had seized power turned authoritarian or were displaced by military regimes. Ghana’s experience was emblematic of this early postindependence trend. Ghana had been among the first African countries to attain self-governance (1954) and then independence (1957). Both events were celebrated not only in Africa but throughout the globe. In 1960, a change in the constitution gave Kwame Nkrumah, as head of state, the power to dismiss civil servants, judges, and military officers without the authorization
of parliament. In 1963, the president acquired the power to detain persons charged with political crimes and to try their cases in special courts.When, in 1964, Nkrumah proclaimed the ruling party the sole legal party in Ghana, he both followed and gave impetus to the trend toward single-party rule on the continent. When, in 1966, Ghana’s military toppled the Nkrumah regime, Ghana joined Sudan, Benin, Togo, and the Central African Republic—all states in which the national military had overthrown a civilian regime (in 1958, 1962, 1963, and 1965 respectively). Following the military’s overthrow of Nkrumah’s government in Ghana, armed forces drove civilian governments from power in Burkina Faso, Nigeria, and Burundi in 1966, and Congo in 1968. By the mid-1970s, the military held power in one-third of the nations of sub-Saharan Africa. By the mid-1970s, the politics of Africa had turned authoritarian. Only four states in Africa—Botswana, Gambia, Mauritius, and Senegal—retained multiparty systems. Figure 1 captures this turn to authoritarianism in postindependence Africa.
LATE-CENTURY POLITICS The politics of late-century Africa was marked by two major trends. The first was the return to multiparty politics;
28 African Politics and Society FIGURE 1: MILITARY GOVERNMENTS MAKE UP THE MAJORITY OF THE NO-PARTY STATES. Party System by Period 60
No-party Single Party Multiparty
Percent Observations
50
40
30
20
10
0 1970–1974
1975–1979
1980–1984
1985–1989
1990–1995
Military governments make up the majority of the no-party states.
the second, an increase in political violence. These trends had common origins in global political and economic crises. Beginning with the rise in oil prices following the Yom Kippur war of 1973, the economies of the advanced industrial nations fell into deep recession. As a result of declining growth in these nations, Africa’s export earnings declined. Private income fell, and so too did government revenues. Some economies initially eluded economic decline: those that produced oil, of course, and others that produced crops, such as coffee, whose prices rose when frost and war drove two major exporters from global markets. Those countries blessed with rich natural endowments—Zambia, with its copper deposits, or Zaire, with copper, cobalt, and gold— could borrow and thus postpone cuts in spending. In the mid-1980s, their incomes also collapsed. In the early 1980s, the U.S. Federal Reserve had precipitously increased the rate of interest, sharpening the level of recession. The subsequent collapse of the Mexican peso led to an end of private lending to developing economies. When in 1986 Arab countries increased oil production in an effort to revive the growth of the industrial economies, Africa’s oil exporters experienced a decline in earnings. With this last blow, virtually all the economies of the continent fell into recession. In the recession, Africa’s citizens experienced increased poverty; so too did their governments.The result was a decline
in the quality of public services. Most African governments secured their revenues from taxes on trade. Given the decline in exports, they could respond to the fall in revenues either by freezing salaries and cutting their payrolls or by running deficits, which lowered the real earnings of public servants by increasing prices. Children attended schools that lacked text books.Teachers were often absent, seeking to supplement their salaries with earnings from private trade. In clinics and hospitals, patients suffered from the lack of medicines and the absence of staff. Soldiers went unpaid. In response, the citizens of Africa began to turn against their governments. Parents and children protested the decline in the quality of schools, hospitals, and clinics. Business owners targeted the erratic supply of water and electricity and the crumbling systems of transport and communications. Discontent with the decline in public services was heightened by the disparity in fortunes between those with power and those without. High-ranking officials could send their children to schools abroad or secure medical treatment in London, Washington, or Paris. The political elite could recruit and pay their own security services, purchase private generators, and maintain private means of transport. In general, those who ruled could escape the misery that befell others. As the economies of African states collapsed, citizens increasingly called for reform, particularly the restoration of multiparty politics and
African Politics and Society 29 an increase in the power of the masses relative to the power of those who governed. Opposition to Africa’s authoritarian regimes also mounted from abroad. Governments had fallen into debt, and foreign creditors increasingly demanded that the governments adopt reform policies aimed at reigniting economic growth on the continent. Governments that were accountable to their people, the creditors argued, would be less likely to prey upon private assets, distort private markets, and favor public firms over private enterprises. Led by officials of the World Bank, economic technocrats began to join with local activists in demanding political reform. In the later decades of the twentieth century, Africa’s political elites thus faced challenges from home and abroad. To a remarkable degree, military and single-party regimes proved able to hold onto power until a second global shock—the fall of communism—destabilized many African regimes. Western governments had tolerated repressive practices in Africa nations in exchange for support in the cold war, but after the collapse of the Soviet Union, Western governments no longer urged their economic technocrats to release loans to repressive governments. They were willing to let fall those African elites whose services they no longer required. In response to increased pressures from home and abroad, some governments reformed. As shown in Figure 1, whereas more than 80 percent of Africa’s governments had been no party (largely military) or single-party systems in the mid-1980s, by the mid-1990s, multiparty systems prevailed in nearly onehalf of African countries. Other governments, however, reacted by intensifying the level of repression. In Togo, the armies of President Gnassingbé Eyadéma fired on civilians who had gathered in the streets of Lomé, the national capital, to protest his rule. In Liberia, Rwanda, and Sierra Leone, thugs hired by the governing parties harassed and harried those who sought to displace them. In Burundi, the military, once displaced from power, slaughtered the civilians who had seized it, while in neighboring Rwanda, the government unleashed a program of mass killing, seeking to eradicate those who opposed it. Since the late twentieth century, military coups have become rare, and multiparty elections the norm in Africa. In addition, the continent has become more peaceful, with civil wars ending in Angola, Burundi, Liberia, Mozambique, Rwanda, Somalia, and, less certainly, Congo. In the mid-1990s, economic growth returned for the first time since the 1980s, apparently sparked by the increased demand for primary products resulting from economic growth in China and India, as well as the return of private investment, much by companies from South Africa. When measured in terms of peace and prosperity, however, the nations of Africa still occupy the lower rungs of the global community. For the first time in several decades, there have been distinct signs of political and economic progress in the continent.
ETHNICITY Some have attributed Africa’s slow growth to ethnic diversity; others attribute its political instability to conflict among ethnic
groupings. Many observers thus contend that ethnicity is at the roots of Africa’s development crisis. The evidence, however, suggests several flaws in this argument. Though some argue that ethnic diversity weakens the capacity of people to agree on the allocation of shared resources, others argue that ethnic groups mobilize resources in support of their communities by, for example, sponsoring the educations of promising young people, building schools and clinics, and conferring recognition on those who use their wealth in support of their communities. There are large literatures on the local funding of schools in Kenyan communities and of the funding of scholarships by Ibo communities in eastern Nigeria. In addition, while ethnic groups may compete for power, in most African nations this competition is peaceful. As in the urban centers of the advanced industrial countries, politics in Africa may pit one ethnic group against another, but these rivalries, while colorful, rarely lead to violence. Recent research suggests the conditions under which conflicts among ethnic groups can become violent. One such condition occurs when small groups capture power and employ it to extract wealth from others. Such was the case in Burundi under the rule of Michel Micombero or in Liberia under Samuel Doe.To remain in power, such groups may have to rule by fear, thereby cowing or decimating their political opposition. In addition, when one ethnic group is sufficiently large to form a political majority on its own, others may come to fear the prospect of political exclusion and so choose to revolt, as did the Tutsi in Rwanda and the Gio and Mano in Liberia. The statistical evidence for this phenomenon is not robust in cross-national data, but qualitative accounts and data on within country variation offer fairly consistent support for it. In Africa, as elsewhere, normal politics involves the management of differences among ethnic groups. Only in special circumstances do political forces align so as to transform these rivalries into political violence. See also African Political Economy; Authoritarianism, African; Colonialism; Ethnocentrism; Imperialism; Nationalism; Party Systems, Comparative; Poverty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ROBERT BATES BIBLIOGRAPHY Abernethy, David B. The Dynamics of Global Dominance: European Overseas Empires, 1415–1980. New Haven, Conn.:Yale University Press, 2000. Austin, Dennis. Politics in Ghana, 1946–60. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1964. Bates, Robert H. Essays on the Political Economy of Rural Africa. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987. ———. Open Economy Politics. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1997. ———. When Things Fell Apart: State Failure in Late-century Africa. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008. Bates, Robert H., and Irene Yackovlev. “Ethnicity, Capital Formation, and Conflict: Evidence from Africa.” In The Role of Social Capital in Development: An Empirical Assessment, edited by Christiaan Grootaert and Thierry Van Bastelaer, 310–340. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
30 African Union Collier, Paul. “The Political Economy of Ethnicity.” In Proceedings of the Annual Bank Conference on Development Economics, edited by B. Pleskovic and J. E. Stigler, 387–399. Washington D.C.: World Bank, 1999. Collier, Paul, Robert H. Bates, A. Hoeffler, and Steve O’Connell. “ Chapter 11: Endogenizing Syndromes.” In The Political Economy of African Economic Growth, 1960–2000, edited by B. Ndulu, Paul Collier, Rorbert H. Bates, and Steve O’Connell. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007. Collier, Ruth Berins. Regimes in Tropical Africa: Changing Forms of Supremacy, 1945–1975. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982. Easterly, William, and Ross Levine, “Africa’s Growth Tragedy: Policies and Ethnic Divisions.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 112 (November 1997): 1203–1250. Fearon, James D., and David D. Laitin. “Ethnicity, Insurgency and Civil War.” American Political Science Review 97 (February 2003): 75–90. Hodgkin, Thomas. Nationalism in Colonial Africa. New York: New York University Press, 1956. Kaplan, Robert D. “The Coming Anarchy.” The Atlantic Monthly 273 (February 1994): 44–76. Meredith, Martin. The State of Africa: A History of Fifty Years of Independence. London: Free Press, 2005. Miguel, Edward, and Mary Kay Gugerty. “Ethnic Diversity, Social Sanctions, and Public Goods in Kenya.” Journal of Public Economics 89, no. 11–12 (2005): 2325–2368. Murshed, S. Mansoob, and Scott Gates. “Spatial-Horizontal Inequality and the Maoist Insurgency in Nepal.” Paper comissioned by the Department for International Development, London, 2003. Pakenham, Thomas. The Scramble for Africa:The White Man’s Conquest of the Dark Continent from 1876 to 1912. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1991. Uchendu,Victor C. The Igbo of Southeast Nigeria. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1965. World Bank. Sub-Saharan Africa: From Crisis to Sustainable Growth. Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1989. ———. Governance and Development. Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1991.
African Union The African Union (AU) is an intergovernmental, international organization created in 2002 with the purpose of securing democracy, human rights, and a sustainable economy in Africa, especially by bringing an end to intra-African conflict and creating an effective common market. The AU was formed as a successor of the Organization of African Unity (OAU). The OAU, founded in 1963 on the principles of state sovereignty and noninterference, drew criticism throughout the 1990s for its lack of intervention as conflicts erupted in several African countries. The idea of creating the AU emerged in the mid-1990s and resulted in the adoption of the Sirte Declaration by the OAU’s heads of state and government. The declaration, issued in September 1999, called for the establishment of an African Union with a view to accelerating the process of integration on the continent. In the following year, the Constitutive Act of the African Union was signed in Lomé, Togo, and the organization was officially launched in Durban in July 2002. Fiftythree countries in Africa are members of the AU (all African countries but Morocco).
OBJECTIVES AND PRINCIPLES The AU is guided by fourteen objectives designed to enhance political cooperation and economic integration, ranging from
greater unity and solidarity between the countries and peoples of Africa to promotion of democratic principles and good governance to protection of human rights to coordination and harmonization between the regional economic communities. The attainment of these objectives is to be achieved through the observance of a number of fundamental principles, in accordance with which the AU shall function. Included among these principles are the participation of African people in the AU activities; the promotion of self-reliance within the AU’s framework; the promotion of gender equality and of social justice; respect for the sanctity of human life; the prohibition of the threat of or use of force; the establishment of a common defense policy; and the condemnation and rejection of unconstitutional changes of government. Unlike its antecessor, the AU has recognized the right to intervene without consent in internal conflicts, in cases in which circumstances are grave, “namely war crimes, genocide, and crimes against humanity” (Constitutive Act, article 4-h). On February 3, 2003 this provision was amended to include “serious threats to legitimate order.” Regarding the economic integration of Africa, the AU bases itself on the Treaty Establishing the African Economic Community (Abuja Treaty), signed in 1991 (came into effect in 1994). The treaty envisaged that the community must be established mainly through the coordination, harmonization, and progressive integration of the activities of the Regional Economic Communities (RECs)—the subregions of Africa.
ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE According to the Constitutive Act of the AU (2002) and the Protocol Relating to the Establishment of the Peace and Security Council of the AU (2002), the organs of the organization are: (1) Assembly, comprised of heads of state. It meets at least once a year and is the AU’s main decision-making body. Its members elect an AU chair, who holds office for one year. (2) Executive Council, comprised of foreign affairs ministers or other ministers designated by member states. The Executive Council is responsible to the Assembly. (3) Commission, composed by a chair, a deputy and the commissioners holding individual portfolios, which manages day-to-day tasks and implements AU policies. (4) Peace and Security Council (PSC), a body set up in 2004, which serves as a collective security and early warning arrangement to respond to conflict and crisis (through preventive diplomacy, early warning, peacemaking, peacekeeping, peace enforcement, peace building, and humanitarian action). The PSC has fifteen member states, elected for two or three year terms, with equal voting rights;.(5) Pan-African Parliament, established in March 2004 to ensure the participation of African peoples in governance, development, and economic integration of the continent. This body debates continentwide issues and advises AU heads of state. It currently exercises oversight and has advisory and consultative powers only, but there are plans to grant it legislative powers in the future. (6) Economic, Social, and Cultural Council (ECOSOCC), established in 2005, which seeks to build partnerships between African governments and civil society. ECOSOCC includes
E U R O P E
AT L A N T I C Tunis
OCEAN
Algiers Rabat
Me
TUNISIA
MOROCCO
dite
A S I A rran
ean Sea
Tripoli Cairo
ALGERIA
Laâyoune
LIBYA
SAHARAWI ARAB DEM. REP.
EGYPT
dS ea
MAURITANIA MALI
Nouakchott
NIGER
SENEGAL
Conakry Freetown
CÔTE D’IVOIRE
SIERRA LEONE Monrovia
LIBERIA
Yamoussoukro Accra
DJIBOUTI Djibouti
NIGERIA Abuja
Porto-Novo Lomé Malabo
CA
TOGO EQUATORIAL GUINEA
SAO TOME & PRINCIPE
Asmara
SUDAN
N’Djamena
BURKINA FASO
GUINEA
São Tomé
Addis Ababa
N
GUINEA-BISSAU
Bamako Ouagadougou
M
Bangui
Yaoundé
RE P. CO OF T NG HE O
Bissau
CHAD
Niamey
BENIN
THE GAMBIA
ERITREA
Khartoum
GHANA
Dakar Banjul
ER OO
CAPE VERDE
Praia
ile
Re
N
Libreville
GABON
Brazzaville
SOMALIA
C o ng o
UGANDA Kampala
D E M . R E P. O F T H E Kigali CONGO
Kinshasa
Cabinda (ANGOLA)
ETHIOPIA
CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC
KENYA
Mogadishu
Nairobi
RWANDA
Victoria
BURUNDI
Bujumbura
Dar es Salaam
TANZANIA
SEYCHELLES
Luanda
Windhoek
BOTSWANA Gaborone
Pretoria Mbabane
Maseru
African Union:
SOUTH AFRICA
Member country Non-member country
Cape Town
BI
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M
mb iq
NAMIBIA
MOZ A
OCEAN
Harare
ZIMBABWE
COMOROS
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AT L A N T I C
Moroni
MALAWI
Mo za
ZAMBIA
Lilongwe
ha nn el
ANGOLA
Antananarivo
MADAGASCAR
Maputo
SWAZILAND LESOTHO
INDIAN OCEAN
0 0
MAURITIUS
Port Louis
500 Mi 500 Km
Member states of the African Union focus on ending intra-African conflict and creating an effective common market.
32 Afro-Marxism African social groups, professional groups, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and cultural organizations. (7) African Court of Justice and Human Rights, which came about as the result of a merger between the regional African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights and the AU Court of Justice. The court is located in Arusha, Tanzania. And (8) financial institutions. The AU charter names three bodies: the African Central Bank, the African Monetary Fund, and the African Investment Bank. Besides these key institutions, the AU’s activities are supported as well by a Panel of the Wise, a Continental Early Warning System (CEWS), an AU Standby Force, a Peace Fund, and the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD). NEPAD is a comprehensive development plan that addresses key social, economic, and political priorities in a coherent and balanced manner. It was adopted at the thirty-seventh session of the Assembly of Heads of State and Government of the AU in July 2001 in Lusaka, Zambia. The AU has adopted various key documents establishing norms at the continental level to supplement those already in force when it was created. These include the African Convention on Preventing and Combating Corruption (2003); the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa (2003); the African Union Non-Aggression and Common Defense Pact (2005); the African Youth Charter (2006); the Charter for African Cultural Renaissance (2006); the African Charter on Democracy, Elections, and Governance (2007); and the African Charter on Statistics (2009). For an organization that only became operational in 2002, and unlike the OAU, the AU has demonstrated a strong political willingness to engage with decisive issues such as conflict resolution and economic development. Its resource capacity is limited, however, which encourages dependency on foreign funds. See also African Political Economy; African Political Thought; African Politics and Society; Pan-Africanism; Regional Security. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RODRIGO TAVARES BIBLIOGRAPH Y African Union. Constitutive Act of the African Union, Togo, July 11, 2000. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: African Union, 2000. ———. The Protocol Relating to the Establishment of the Peace and Security Council of the African Union, July 2, 2002. Durban, South Africa: African Union 2002, www.africa-union.org/root/AU/organs/psc/Protocol_ peace%20and%20security.pdf. Francis, David. Uniting Africa: Building Regional Peace and Security Systems. Aldershot, U.K.: Ashgate, 2006. Makinda , Samuel M., and Wafula Okumu. The African Union: Challenges of Globalization, Security and Governance. London: Routledge, 2008. Murithi, Timothy. The African Union; Pan-Africanism, Peacebuilding and Development. Aldershot, U.K.: Ashgate, 2005.
Afro-Marxism Afro-Marxism refers to the adoption by postcolonial governments in Africa of Marxist-style models of social and economic development supported through links with Communist Party–led governments such as the Soviet Union and
Cuba. Afro-Marxism is characterized by centralized political decision making, typically within a one-party state, economic collectivization or nationalization of productive property and industry, and the direction of a national culture, often without regard for the cultures of ethnic minorities, by the ruling party. It is to be distinguished from African socialism, which refers to the perspective that traditional African communities exhibit characteristics, including social relations and sharing of resources, that reflect a form of indigenous socialism based on local communal organization and practices. African socialism offered an alternative to the “scientific” or authoritarian socialism of Afro-Marxism, which was based on models borrowed from Soviet or Maoist regimes. For many Africans involved in liberation movements and struggles against colonialism, Marxism, especially the example of the Russian Revolution (1917), offered a model for the launching of economic and political revolutions. This revolutionary model, in which a seizure of national power provides a lever for rapid industrialization, held great appeal throughout the twentieth century within numerous newly liberated African countries. As postcolonial governments looked for means by which to “catch up” with the industrial might of the former colonial powers, the approach of socialism, especially statist socialism or Marxism, seemed to provide both a potentially effective political program and an ideological justification for statist reorganization of the economy. It seemed to offer a distinct alternative to the exploitative and oppressive political economic regimes of imperialist rule. The history of such movements in Africa dates especially to the movements against colonialism from the middle or late twentieth century. Important examples of Afro-Marxist movements and systems include the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) and the Liberation Front of Mozambique (FRELIMO), which took power in those former Portuguese colonies in 1975. Between 1974 and 1991 a socialist government under Lieutenant Colonel Haile Mengitsu ruled Ethiopia. In addition, numerous Marxist parties and organizations have been active in several African countries, including South Africa, where the South African Communist Party played a significant part in the downfall of the apartheid regime. Among the most notable proponents of Afro-Marxism are Amilcar Cabral (Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde), Samora Machel (Mozambique), Michel Micombero (Burundi), Agostinho Neto (Angola), and Thomas Sankara (Burkina Faso). Robert Mugabe of Zimbabwe, who took power in 1980 through an armed struggle movement deploying some elements of Marxist-Leninist ideology, has positioned himself as a defender of African autonomy from Western corporate interests while subjecting his population, especially the poor and his political opponents, to ongoing repression and punishment. Afro-Marxism played an important part in bringing about the end of the apartheid regime in South Africa. Angolan (MPLA) forces, backed by Cuban troops along with forces of the South West Africa People’s Organization (SWAPO), pushed back the South African forces that invaded Angola.
Agenda Control 33 The stalemate forced the South African government to take part in negotiations that eventually led to the independence of Namibia and indeed played a major part in the collapse of the apartheid regime in 1994. Afro-Marxism held out a promise of self-sufficiency, equality, economic development, and prosperity. In practice, most examples of Afro-Marxism failed to deliver much in any of these areas. Also, many leaders who had advocated the more moderate African socialism fell back on authoritarian forms of Soviet-style government when attempting to implement their policies. Economic development primarily directed wealth into the hands of the new elite, which consisted of leading members of the ruling party. Western versions of socialism, especially Soviet-inspired systems, were often inapplicable to the specific social circumstances of less industrialized countries, whose labor base was often concentrated in agricultural or resource-extractive industries. Similarly, Afro-Marxism failed to draw on local governance practices to organize social and productive life and instead relied on the centralized statist models of Sovietism. The collapse of the Soviet Union and the Soviet systems in Eastern Europe in the late 1980s and early 1990s, along with the passing of Maoism and China’s embrace of capitalism by the late twentieth century, all dealt severe blows to Afro-Marxist regimes. The loss of aid and trade ties with the Soviet economies left Marxist governments in Africa desperate for aid from Western capitalist governments and international financial organizations like the International Monetary Fund and World Bank. At the same time, China maintains aid and investment in many African countries and seeks to expand its influence on the continent. China’s financial connections with the regime in Sudan has been highly criticized by human rights activists and commentators. While China has attempted to develop its influence, it has not supported or encouraged the development of communist regimes or parties as the Soviet Union did. Governments also became more vulnerable to the pressures of Western governments and institutions to accept structural adjustment programs, including the privatization of government works and lands. See also Apartheid; Communism; Marxism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JEFFREY SHANTZ BIBLIOGRAPH Y Babu, A. M. African Socialism or Socialist Africa? London: Zed, 1981. Higgins, Nicholas P. Understanding the Chiapas Rebellion: Modernist Visions and the Invisible Indian. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2004. Mbah, Samuel, and I. E. Irigariwey. African Anarchism:The History of a Movement. Tucson, Ariz.: Sharp, 2001. Nyerere, Julius. Freedom and Socialism: A Selection of Writings and Speeches, 1965–1967. Dar es Salaam: Oxford University Press, 1968. ———. Ujaama: Essays on Socialism. London: Oxford University Press, 1977.
Agenda Control Agenda control may be defined as the ability to affect the way in which alternatives enter collective decision making. While
agenda control is important generally, it plays a special role in the rational-choice-based theory of democratic institutions (or the “new institutionalism”). It has two major but somewhat different roles. One is the ability to regulate what alternatives are allowed to be considered at all; the other is in controlling the manner in which alternatives are considered, such as the order of voting.
PATH DEPENDENCE IN THE ABSENCE OF MAJORITY-RULE VOTING EQUILIBRIUM A distinction may be drawn between when there is a majorityrule voting equilibrium—roughly speaking, an outcome that a majority in society prefers to all others—and when there is no such an equilibrium. The first case is the famous median voter result and its variants. The second case is when there is a majority cycle with no alternative that can win a majority over all others. In the latter case, what wins depends on the order in which alternatives come up, as Charles R. Plott (1967) showed, and hence agenda control is exceedingly important. Richard McKelvey (1976) and Norman Schofield (1983) then demonstrated that there is a path of choices that makes it possible to get from any possible starting point to any logically possible policy imaginable; hence, the outcome is called path dependent. This massive extent of potential effects put agenda control at the center of inquiry for new institutionalist theories, for whoever controlled the agenda controlled the outcome, getting almost literally any outcome the controllers desired. Plott’s work also shows how agenda control of this form can matter. Plott, Cohen, and Levine (1978) were asked to devise a method for choosing among planes for a club for those who enjoy flying airplanes. Plott and Levine devised an agenda that secured Levine’s most preferred outcome, even though a majority preferred something else. Plott, Cohen, and Levine (1978) then devised a series of game theoretic experiments to show this point in another way. By clever application of agenda control, they could induce the subjects in the experiment to choose any kind of pizza toppings the Plott and company desired, including “chocolate pizza” (which they used in the title of their article).
MAJORITY-RULE EQUILIBRIA VERSUS REVERSION POINTS The most important positive result about majority rule is that it will select the ideal point of the median voter, because that it is the majority-rule equilibrium when a median exists. In Duncan Black’s median voter theorem (1958), the agenda is assumed to be open, the median voter can therefore propose a preferred outcome at some point, and that alternative then will defeat any and every other proposal. Thomas Romer and Howard Rosenthal (1978) examined the case when an individual (or group) can select which alternatives may to be considered. They find that, at the extreme, agenda control power will pull the outcome away, sometimes substantially, from the median voter outcome. For example, in many locales, the school board may propose a tax rate to pay for schools for the coming year. Voters then vote it up or down. Given this ability to limit the
34 Agenda Setting choice set of the voters drastically, it is not surprising that the agenda controller can shape the outcome. It is not complete control, however, as in the case where there is no majorityrule equilibrium. The final result reflects, in effect, a balancing between the preferences of the median voter, the preferences of the agenda controller, and what is called the reversion point— what would happen if the proposal of the agenda controller is defeated. The reversion point is not always the status quo. To use the school board example, if the school board’s new tax rate is rejected, the school budget may not revert to last year’s budget—it may fall to zero. The prospect of essentially shutting down the schools would give the school board tremendous bargaining power as the agenda controller to obtain an outcome it desires. In general, the more extreme the reversion point, the greater the control held by the agenda controller.
WIDE APPLICATIONS This relatively straightforward result has been applied in many settings. For example, committees in the U.S. Congress have “gatekeeping power” in their jurisdiction. That is, they have a set of policies that are granted to them, their policy jurisdiction. In many circumstances, they decide whether there will be any consideration of change to the status quo in their jurisdiction at all. By “keeping the gates closed”—that is, reporting out no proposal for new policy in that area—the Congress as a whole cannot change policy. (In reality, there are of course limits to this power.) Conversely, they can “open the gates” by reporting a bill out from committee to the floor. In some cases, the bill has a “closed” rule, which means that no amendments are permitted. Thus, in such cases, the committee has strong agenda control in the sense analyzed by Romer and Rosenthal. Shepsle (1979) developed a model of Congress along these lines. Furthermore, when the two chambers in the U.S. Congress pass different forms of similar legislation, the bills are often referred to a conference committee to work out the differences. The bill designed by the conference committee then returns to the floor of both chambers for final consideration with no amendments permitted, another instance of such agenda control. In many parliaments, the government (that is, the party or parties that form the operative majority and appoint a cabinet of ministers) often reports bills from the cabinet to the legislature with no amendments permitted. Thus, this form of agenda control has many important applications to democratic institutions around the world. See also Agenda Setting; Equilibrium and Chaos; New Institutionalism;Voting Behavior. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JOHN H. ALDRICH BIBLIOGRAPH Y Black, Duncan. The Theory of Committees and Elections. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1958. McKelvey, Richard D. “Intransitivities in Multidimensional Voting Models and Some Implications for Agenda Control.” Journal of Economic Theory 12 (1976): 472–482. McKelvey, Richard D., Peter C. Ordeshook, and Peter Ungar. “Necessary and Sufficient Conditions for Voting Equilibria in Continuous Voter Distributions.” SIAM Journal of Applied Mathematics 39 (1980): 161–168.
Mckelvey, Richard D., and Norman Scofield. “Structural Instability of the Core.” Journal of Mathematical Economics 15 (1986): 179–198. Plott, Charles R. “A Notion of Equilibrium and Its Possibility under Majority Rule.” American Economic Review 57 (September 1967): 787–806. ———. “Path Independence, Rationality, and Social Choice.” Econometrica 41 (November 1973): 1075–1091. Plott, Charles R., Linda Cohen, and Michael Levine. “Communication and Agenda Influence: The Chocolate Pizza Design.” In Coalition Forming Behavior: Contributions to Experimental Economics, vol. 8, edited by H. Sauermann, 329–357. Tubingen, Germany: Mohr, 1978. Plott, Charles R., and Michael Levine. “A Model of Agenda Influence on Committee Decisions.” American Economic Review 68 (March 1978): 146–160. Romer, Thomas, and Howard Rosenthal. “Political Resource Allocation, Controlled Agendas, and the Status Quo.” Public Choice 33 (Winter 1978): 27–43. Schofield, Norman. “Generic Instability of Majority Rule.” Review of Economic Studies 50 (1983): 695–705. Shepsle, Kenneth A. “Institutional Arrangements and Equilibrium in Multidimensional Voting Models.” American Journal of Political Science 23, (February 1979): 27–59.
Agenda Setting Agenda-setting theory rests on the assumption that while most citizens depend on the news media for their political information, the media seem to have surprising little impact on actually altering voters’ attitudes about a given issue. Instead, agenda-setting theory posits that the media’s power of persuasion is indirect in nature. According to Bernard Cohen in his 1963 book, The Press and Foreign Policy, even though “the press may not be successful much of the time in telling people what to think, it is stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think about” (13). That is, by covering certain issues and ignoring others, the news media create a political agenda (i.e., determine what issues are important and what issues are not), which the public then internalizes as its own set of priorities. Thus, the media’s and the public’s agendas merge into one, so that what the media find to be noteworthy and in turn promote as important through news coverage is eventually mirrored by citizens. Sociologists Kurt Lang and Gladys Engel Lang (1966), two of the pioneers of media effects research, put it this way: “The mass media force our attention onto certain issues by covering or promoting certain issues and individuals, which then suggests what we should think about, know about, have feelings about” (468). Or in the simplest of terms, try not to think about pink elephants after Good Morning America, the NBC Nightly News, 20/20, and Nightline all run news segments on them.
EARLY RESEARCH Although over a century ago journalist Walter Lippman captured the essence of agenda setting with his phrase “the world outside, and the pictures in our heads” (referring to the fact that people are more responsive to the pseudo-environment of mental images created by the media than they are to reality), early communication research focused on assessing direct media effects, not the more subtle indirect ones. Therefore, empirical confirmation of agenda-setting effects did not occur
Agenda Setting 35 until the last few decades of the twentieth century. The classic agenda-setting study was conducted by Maxwell McCombs and Donald E. Shaw in 1972. McCombs and Shaw interviewed one hundred undecided voters in and around Chapel Hill, North Carolina, combining voters’ attitudes about various policy concerns with a content analysis of television and the print media’s coverage on those same issues. Though the authors found a strong correspondence between the media’s and the voters’ agendas, McCombs and Shaw could not fully support their conclusion that news coverage was shaping voters’ policy agendas over an alternative explanation: that the news media were simply successful in tailoring news coverage to reflect the actual issue interests of audience members. More research was needed. Using experimentation, Shanto Iyengar and Donald Kinder presented strong evidence that the news media set the public agenda. In a series of experiments described in their now classic book, News That Matters (1987), the researchers manipulated media content, thereby controlling which issues participants were exposed to. Participants in the experiments were shown what they believed were regular newscasts from the 6 o’clock evening news, when in fact the newscasts had been carefully edited to include or omit specific stories. The results indicate classic agenda-setting effects. For example, participants who were exposed to stories about the inadequacy of funding for the U.S. military were more likely to consider this issue to be important, even though prior to the study they were unconcerned about military spending. For participants in the control condition—those who did not view the military spending story—the importance they assigned to military funding remained unchanged.
AGENDA SETTING AND PRIMING Agenda-setting effects are not limited to focusing the public’s attention on particular problems; they also can change the measures that people use to evaluate those issues. Iyengar and Kinder found evidence of a priming effect; that is, issues that the media stress become the issues that voters use to later evaluate political candidates. For instance, exposure to television stories that linked the economic downturn in the 1980s to the president’s performance primed viewers to use this standard of economic performance in their subsequent evaluations of the president. Thus, if the news media consistently suggest that an economic downturn is the result of poorly crafted presidential policy, the public will come to believe overwhelmingly that the president has caused that economic downturn. On the other hand, when television coverage discounts the president’s role in the state of the economy, so will viewers. Therefore, by deciding what issues to cover, the media set the public agenda, which in turn influences the importance citizens ascribe to the reported issues. By elevating certain issues over others or “priming” those issues, the media influence citizens’ evaluations of political actors and alter the criteria by which political players are judged. That is, priming, as some political scientists use the term, causes a greater influential weight to be attached to an issue once it receives media
coverage. Voters’ prior attitudes toward these issues are then more likely to predict their political candidate evaluations if they have been primed by the media. For example, attitudes in support of the Nicaraguan contras were twice as important in determining President Ronald Reagan’s popularity after media coverage of the Iran-Contra scandal than they were prior to coverage, as Jon Krosnick and Donald Kinder argued in 1990. Because the media emphasized the Iran-Contra affair, citizens’ evaluations of President Reagan were more likely to be based on this issue than others. The first is an example of media agenda setting; the second is an example of media priming.
ROLE REVERSAL While an overwhelming number of legitimate issues and ideas circulate at any one time, one of the major dilemmas journalists face is deciding what issues to cover and what not to cover, and how much coverage to devote to any given issue. As Michael Delli Carpini noted in 2005, “given the inherent constraints on covering everything of potential import, public journalists argue that citizens themselves, rather than (or in addition to) elites, should set the agenda.” Thus, a reversal of agenda setting occurs when journalists listen to citizens to understand what aspects of the social and political world are important to them. In a comprehensive study of Britain’s 1997 general election campaign, Pippa Norris and her colleagues (1999) found that political parties, not citizens, set the agenda, thus limiting the power of the media to directly boost attention to an issue. A similar study by Heinz Brandenburg (2004) of the 2002 Irish election campaign found that political parties such as Fianna Fáil are the main agenda setters and that the media follow. Although media outlets such as The Irish Times also influenced party communications, these effects were small and infrequent. Thus, campaigns seem to foster different agendasetting dynamics. In conclusion, most research to date has focused on either documenting the actual phenomenon of agenda setting or exploring the psychology of agenda setting—that is, the media’s impact on the public agenda and the subsequent consequences for citizens’ attitudes and opinions. For the most part, thirty years and more than 200 studies later, Bernard Cohen’s classic observation still holds true: “The press may not be successful much of the time in telling people what to think, but it is stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think about” (1963, 13). And, to this we might add (in Cohen’s words) “that by altering citizens’ issue priorities and voters’ subsequent policy and vote choices, the media indirectly reshape the political landscape and ultimately the democratic process.” See also Media and Politics; Media Bias; Media Effect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . KAREN CALLAGHAN BIBLIOGRAPHY Brandenburg, Heinz. “Manipulating the Dimensions. A Comparative Study of Campaign Effects on Media Agenda Formation.” Paper presented at the European Consortium for Political Research Joint Sessions, Uppsala, Sweden, April 2004.
36 Agrarianism Cohen, Bernard. The Press and Foreign Policy. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1963. Delli Carpini, Michael. “News from Somewhere: Journalistic Frames and the Debate over Public Journalism.” In Framing American Politics, edited by Karen Callaghan and Frauke Schnell, 21–53. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2005. Iyengar, Shanto, and Donald Kinder. News That Matters. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987. Iyengar, Shanto, Donald Kinder, Mark D. Peters, and Jon A. Krosnick. “The Evening News and Presidential Evaluations.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 46 (1984): 778–787. Krosnick, Jon, and Donald Kinder. “Altering the Foundations of Support for the President through Priming.” American Political Science Review 84 (1990): 497–512. Lang, Kurt, and Gladys Engel Lang. “The Mass Media and Voting.” In Reader in Public Opinion and Communication, 2nd ed., edited by Bernard Berelson and Morris Janowitz, 455–472. New York: Free Press, 1966. Lippman, Walter. Public Opinion. New York: MacMillan, 1922. McCombs, Maxwell. “A Look at Agenda Setting: Past, Present, and Future.” Journalism Studies 6 (2005): 543–557. McCombs, Maxwell, and Donald E. Shaw. “The Agenda Setting Function of the Mass Media.” Public Opinion Quarterly 36 (1972): 176–187. Norris, Pippa, John Curtice, David Sanders, Margaret Scammell, and Holli A. Semetko. On Message: Communicating the Campaign. London: Sage, 1999.
Agrarianism Agrarianism is a political and philosophical orientation that emphasizes the purported moral virtue, practical wisdom, environmental sustainability, and political usefulness of agricultural pursuits, in particular when such pursuits are practiced by large numbers of people, preferably by their own labor on land they own or who at least exercise some authority over themselves. Many proponents of agrarianism do not embrace all or even most particulars of this orientation, seeing it instead as merely an appropriate label for those who see value in farming and a more rustic or “simple” rural life as opposed to more commercial or urban transactions and lifestyles. However, agrarianism as a broad challenge to various complex forms of economic and political organization has deep roots, extending back centuries to the writings of Roman landowners, as well as having played a particularly important role in developing approaches to modern republican thought in several nations.
AFFILIATION WITH CONSERVATISM, POPULISM, AND LOCALISM By looking to rural living conditions and mostly selfsufficient economies—in particular those maintained by minimal technology and in accordance with traditional family and community practices—as a superior form of social organization, the one best able to inculcate in human beings the moral goods necessary for a fulfilled life, agrarianism seems closely associated with various forms of conservatism. Many of those who have expressed agrarian sentiments in the wake of the Industrial Revolution have consciously, and some very explicitly, presented themselves as conservatives. Agrarianism, in the writings of some, has invoked mostly lost premodern social structures, like the remnants of the feudal order long preserved—despite enclosure laws—in Great Britain, or the yeoman farmer/freeholder ideal treasured by early settlers in
the English colonies, an ideal perpetuated in early-nineteenthcentury America by republican thinkers like Thomas Jefferson and John Taylor of Caroline. Other, more recent agrarian thinkers have presented themselves as lamenters of a traditional, regional agrarian way of life lost in the midst of socioeconomic growth and demographic and technological change. This would be the case in the United States of the “Vanderbilt” or “Southern Agrarians,” including poets and authors like John Ransom, Allen Tate, and Robert Warren, who mourned and, to a degree, raged against the passing of the primarily agricultural “Old South” as President Roosevelt’s responses to the Great Depression (1929–1939), such as the Tennessee Valley Authority, used federal power and dollars to bring industrial work in impoverished parts of the United States. However, by looking to the capacity of individuals to own, work, and make a sustainable living off of land labored upon by themselves, agrarianism also is closely associated with populist revolts; for example, the People’s or Populist Party in the United States from the 1880s through the early 1900s was overwhelmingly shaped by the hopes and demands of rural voters from the American South, Midwest, and Great Plains. Consequently, the agrarian orientation also may align with certain progressive demands from that era, including greater democratic control over banks, railroads, and other corporate institutions whose decisions greatly affect the ability of farmers to independently decide on their own economic actions. Hence, agrarianism is both radical and reactionary, and it has historically encouraged ambitious reforms aimed at limiting corporate power and distributing land, as well as rhetorical and political approaches to civic life that privilege the countryside, the “heartland,” as more authentic, closer to historical virtues, and thus a better gauge of how people ought to use their freedom. One common feature of both radical and reactionary ways of speaking of agrarianism, however, is its localism—its belief in the importance of keeping human affairs limited to a scale small enough that local knowledge will be sufficient to address the concerns of daily life. Such localism is usually expressed along with an anticorporate perspective, visible today in the frequent hostility to globalization and free trade felt by those who live in and represent the agricultural sectors of Europe, North America, and East Asia, and in particular to a distrust or at least an ambiguous relationship with agribusinesses and large, often corporate farm and ranch operations. While such industrial farms and feedlots in fact provide the great bulk of the food consumed in industrialized nations around the world, agrarian thinking usually sees the globalization of agriculture as undermining the real value of farming.
FOUR ASPECTS OF MODERN AGRARIAN CLAIMS The specifics of modern agrarian claims usually include several particular elements: First, morally, farming teaches an economy of limits, patience, shared work, and seasonal dependence, thus schooling those who are raised in agricultural environments in a perspective that will help them deal more respectfully with
AIDS, Politics of 37 others, be less demanding and less self-concerned in addressing problems, be more willing to share with others and form associations with them to accomplish goals, be more generous with their time and resources, and remain pious in the face of challenges to their faith. Second, practically, rural life and agricultural work teach good physical and mental habits and instruct those who devote themselves to—or are at least raised in environments shaped by—farming in a multitude of practical skills that involve animal husbandry, nutrition, construction, and so forth. Third, environmentally, agrarian occupations teach one about the needs of the planet and about nourishing soil, irrigation, crop rotation, and the like, and as such communicate ideas of stewardship between natural resources and human beings far more thoroughly than can those occupations that have no contact with agriculture, thus leaving those so employed to learn about the natural world through tourism or indirect education at best, or perhaps not at all. Fourth, politically, being a landowner (the ideal agrarian arrangement) or a farm laborer teaches, through habituation, personal responsibility but also civic humility, keeping the mind focused on practical as opposed to abstract possibilities. It also teaches, through the experience of tending to one’s stewardship and working visibly through the slow cycle of growing food and feeding oneself, independence of mind and an unwillingness to allow one’s economic or social life to be controlled by powers over which the individual has direct say.
CONCLUSION The environmental claims made on behalf of the agrarian orientation are for the most part a product of late-twentiethcentury reflections on the nature of the natural world and the agricultural use of it. The three other sets of claims all have direct antecedents in the writings of Roman agrarians such as Cato the Elder, Cicero, Varro, Virgil, and others, all of whom associated the ownership and operation of a farm (though not, it should be noted, the life of the slaves who did most of the work on said farms) with economic independence, humility, a strong work ethic, physical heartiness, and a determination to resist tyranny. These varying points, echoed down the centuries, have been used in the history of many Western nations to suggest that the task of agricultural work must be preserved for the sake of the moral health, political liberty, and environmental resources of the nation. Jefferson famously claimed that “those who labor in the earth are the chosen people of God.” While relatively few advocates of agrarianism today would use Jefferson’s exact words, his sentiments remain prevalent. See also Progressivism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RUSSELL ARBEN FOX BIBLIOGRAPH Y Berry, Wendell. The Unsettling of America: Culture and Agriculture. San Francisco: Sierra Club, 1977. ———. The Art of the Commonplace:The Agrarian Essays of Wendell Berry. Edited by Norman Wirzba. Washington, D.C.: Counterpoint, 2002. Carlson, Allan. The New Agrarian Mind:The Movement toward Decentralist Thought in 20th-Century America. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 2000.
Goodwyn, Lawrence. The Populist Moment: A Short History of the Agrarian Revolt in America. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978. Hanson,Victor Davis. The Other Greeks:The Family Farms and the Agrarian Roots of Western Civilization. New York: Free Press, 1995. Jackson, Wes. New Roots for Agriculture. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1985. McCoy, Drew R. The Elusive Republic: Political Economy in Jeffersonian America. New York: Norton, 1980. Twelve Southerners. I’ll Take My Stand:The South and the Agrarian Tradition. Introduction by Louis D. Rubin Jr. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1977. Vitek, William, and Wes Jackson, eds. Rooted in the Land: Essays on Community and Place. New Haven, Conn.:Yale University Press, 1996.
Agrarian Socialism See Lipset, Seymour Martin.
AIDS, Politics of From the discovery of a new epidemic disease among healthy young men in the United States in 1981, acquired immune deficiency syndrome, or AIDS, has been a very political disease. The new disease was first described as gay-related immune deficiency, an association that has affected the course of the disease ever since. The perception that AIDS was primarily a disease of promiscuous male homosexuals slowed government response in the United States and created considerable moral panic worldwide. Today perhaps thirty-five million people are infected with human immunodeficiency virus or HIV, the cause of AIDS, a minority of whom has access to the complex antiretroviral drugs that can control, but not treat, the disease. In parts of southern Africa, the virus has infected more than a quarter of the young adult population, reducing life expectancy and creating enormous strains on social and health services. The long-term effects on social stability and development are not yet well understood, and it is not known how deaths from AIDS are a factor in ongoing instability in countries such as the Congo and Zimbabwe. While the first major medical and governmental responses to HIV and AIDS came in developed countries where public health and gay movements were more established, it became apparent that AIDS was far more severe in some of the world’s poorest countries, above all in sub-Saharan Africa. In 1986, the World Health Organization established the Global Program on AIDS, which in the early 1990s was replaced by UNAIDS, a program intended to promote coordination across all United Nations agencies. In 2000 there was a specific debate on the impact of AIDS on the peace and security in Africa in the UN Security Council, followed by two special sessions of the General Assembly to address the global crisis. A commitment to combating HIV is specifically mentioned in the United Nation’s Millennium Development Goals as well. Responses to the AIDS epidemic were strongest in countries that combined government commitment to fighting the disease with strong civil society organizations, and Brazil, Thailand, and Uganda are often cited as exemplars of good responses. However, the situation in Uganda has become far
38 Alienation, Political more complex over recent years, as moralism has affected what was originally a very effective prevention program. The politics around treatments and prevention are rather different. As antiretroviral drugs (ARVs) have become more effective, access to them has become a major concern, with considerable tension between major pharmaceutical companies and governments over supply and access to generic drugs. The provision of ARVs are testing international trade and property agreements, with a gradual acceptance that profits and intellectual property should not be barriers to providing lifesaving medicines. Prevention, on the other hand, requires a change to intimate behaviors, mainly sexual but also drug-related and needle usage, which many governments are reluctant to acknowledge. Although intravenous drug and needle users and homosexual men are the most vulnerable demographics in many countries, especially in Asia, Latin America, and the former Soviet Union, programs directed to educate and assist these groups are often underfunded, as prevention is often hampered by laws and social stigma. For example, the money made available by the Bush administration through the President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief required an emphasis on abstinence education as a preventive measure instead of promoting safe sexual practices, and there is considerable controversy about the effectiveness of abstinence on stemming sexual disease. The most controversial responses to the epidemic came in South Africa, where after years of dilatory response South African President Thabo Mbeki expressed skepticism about the role of HIV in causing AIDS and the effectiveness of ARVs. It is estimated that President Mbeki’s denial resulted in more than three hundred thousand deaths that could have been prevented had the South African government made readily available drugs, which generated the most significant grassroots AIDS movement to date: the Treatments Action Campaign. AIDS policies started to change toward the end of Mbeki’s term in office, but it remains an unfortunate reminder of the negative importance of government inaction and denial. South African activism drew heavily on earlier examples of AIDS treatment and prevention from Western countries, especially the United States, which pioneered community mobilization in result to the epidemic and introduced global symbols such as the red ribbon and the label “People living with AIDS.” The AIDS epidemic remains a case study of globalization, both in terms of the spread of discourses and treatment. See also Gender and Politics; Health Care Policy; Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Rights; Mutiple Streams Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DENNIS ALTMAN BIBLIOGRAPH Y Altman, Dennis. Power and Community: Organizational and Cultural Responses to AIDS. London: Taylor and Francis, 1994. Barnett, Tony, and Alan Whiteside. AIDS in the Twenty-First Century: Disease and Globalization. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003. De Waal, Alex. AIDS and Power:Why There Is No Political Crisis—Yet. New York: Zed Books, 2006. Epstein, Helen. The Invisible Cure: Africa, the West, and the Fight against AIDS. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2007.
Fourie, Pieter. The Political Management of HIV and AIDS in South Africa: One Burden Too Many? New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006. Lieberman, Evan. Boundaries of Contagion: How Ethnic Politics Have Shaped Government Responses to AIDS. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2009. Pisani, Elizabeth. The Wisdom of Whores: Bureaucrats, Brothels, and the Business of AIDS. New York: Norton, 2008. Poku, Nana K. AIDS in Africa: How the Poor Are Dying. Cambridge, U.K.: Polity Press, 2005.
Alienation, Political Political alienation is an umbrella term that captures a set of negative attitudes about politics that are distributed in systematic ways across the mass public. Higher concentrations of alienated individuals are often located in socially subordinated, marginalized, and politically under-represented groups. Broadly defined as a loss of confidence in political actors and institutions, mass political alienation can lead citizens to challenge regime legitimacy and can compromise regime stability over the long term. This entry provides an overview of ongoing debates about how to define political alienation, what causes it, how it influences individual and mass political participation, the consequences for governance, and prescriptive measures to restore citizens’ confidence in elected officials. Although levels of political alienation have varied historically and across different types of government, this entry focuses on advanced industrialized democracies in the post–World War II era. Though political alienation has a long intellectual history and is particularly indebted to Marx, contemporary research interest in political alienation deepened with the second wave of democratization following World War II (1939–1945) as political scientists tried to forecast potential for long-term regime stability. The debate continued to flourish in the 1960s and 1970s as political scientists and political elites sought to understand the causes—and predict the long-term consequences—of the mass movements for social justice unfolding in Western democracies. Attributed to “culture shift,” characterized by an increase in elite-challenging attitudes about government and more activist modes of political participation, these social justice movements became institutionalized in new policies and government agencies. Nevertheless, public confidence in government and voter turnout continued to decline with each ensuing decade.
DEFINING AND MEASURING POLITICAL ALIENATION AND SUPPORT Ada Finifter’s work is a common starting point for political scientists interested in political alienation. Finifter (1970) defined four separate attitudinal dimensions of political alienation—powerlessness, meaningless, normlessness, and isolation. Powerless citizens express the belief that political elites are not attentive to voters’ concerns, and that there is little that they can do to influence political outcomes. Politics is meaningless when elite decision making is seen as senseless, unpredictable, and random. Citizens find that politics is normless when political elites break the rules of
Alienation, Political 39 the game. Normlessness also is referred to as political distrust or cynicism. Isolated individuals reject the norms and values of the dominant political culture. National and cross-national surveys of mass political attitudes and behavior conducted over four decades commonly include items designed to measure each of these four dimensions. In their 2000 volume on disaffection in political life cross-nationally, Putnam, Pharr, and Dalton used The Harris Poll measures of individual respondents’ disagreement or agreement with the following statements to establish a common framework that links how this concept is measured in North America to analogous efforts in the European and Japanese contexts: “The people running the country don’t really care what happens to you”;“Most people with power try to take advantage of people like yourself ”; “You’re left out of things going on around you”; “The rich get richer and the poor get poorer”; “What you think doesn’t count very much anymore” (9). These basic survey questions have been used to probe how much citizens’ perceptions of elites are an artifact of the institutions and specific political contexts that determine their range of action. Finifter’s (1970) definition of political alienation captures both specific and diffuse (regime) support. Specific support refers to attitudes about particular politicians and parties; diffuse support captures attitudes about the political regime and political processes. Scholars debate how closely the two different types of support are related. Though correlated, specific and diffuse support can vary independently of one another; voters can distrust elected officials and still support democracy. David Easton (1965) has argued that lack of specific support, left unaddressed for a long period, could translate into a lack of regime support. Governments that enjoy high levels of legitimacy and regime support enjoy greater ease in making and enforcing unpopular decisions in the short term that will be of long-term benefit to the common good. High levels of diffuse support accumulate over time to constitute a “reserve of goodwill” that is slow to exhaust and sustains regimes through times of political and economic crisis. Similarly, political losers who are confident in the knowledge that there will be political change in the longrun and can find alternative outlets for exercising political voice are more likely to remain engaged with politics.
DECLINING POLITICAL SUPPORT ACROSS ADVANCED INDUSTRIAL DEMOCRACIES Americans entered the twenty-first century with less confidence in all branches of government and political institutions (e.g., parties and elections) than in the late 1960s. Similar trends are evident cross-nationally in Canada, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, and Sweden. This long decline in public confidence in politics has been correlated with a decline in voter turnout, a loosening of partisan identification and a corresponding increase in independent voters, and an increase in unconventional forms of political participation when political elites cannot be held accountable through the ballot box. The duration of these trends have led scholars to ask, “Are skeptical publics an enduring feature of democracy?” (Dalton
2006, 254). If so, understanding the roots of discontent may give guidance for improving how democracy works. The increase in political alienation has been attributed to various reasons: widening disparities between voter preferences and policy outcomes; the inability of the state to maintain a fine balance between policies that protect workers while promoting an environment conducive to economic growth; corruption scandals that reveal collusion between government and business elites at the cost of the well-being of everyday voters; media coverage of political scandals; negative campaigning that focuses on personal attacks; the decline in civic engagement and a corresponding erosion of social capital; and changing public values. All of these factors predict change along one or more dimensions of political alienation to some degree. Further complicating efforts to understand and respond to deepening public cynicism are the remaining unresolved questions from the 1960s and 1970s about theoretical and empirical links between politically alienated attitudes and the modes of political action that they produce among different social groups in different political contexts. Political alienation can produce a range of behaviors from apathy—or withdrawal from politics— to protest voting and, ultimately, rebellion. Conversely, political alienation also can deepen engagement when angry citizens mobilize for positive democratic change.
CONCLUSION Research that attends to the behavioral outcomes of different attitudinal dimensions of political alienation has found that the demobilizing effects of powerless and meaninglessness, can be offset by the mobilizing potential of political cynicism. Russell J. Dalton (2006) finds that contemporary political cynics are also highly supportive of political rights and participatory norms. Similarly, Ronald Inglehart (1990) finds that when political alienation is characterized by a high level of political cynicism, it is correlated with elite-challenging attitudes that foster an increase in public demands for direct participation in democracy. Despite a decline in public confidence in politics, overwhelming majorities (90 percent) across established democracies agree that democracy is the best form of government. There is considerable evidence that alienated publics in established democracies counterbalance potentially corrosive effects of political distrust with mass actions that reinforce and deepen democratic norms. The politically alienated in democracies can take actions designed to hold officials publicly accountable while demanding greater citizen participation in making the decisions that govern them. See also Corruption and Other Political Pathologies; Democracies, Advanced Industrial; Democracy and Corruption; Mobilization, Political; Protests and Demonstrations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SHERRY L. MARTIN BIBLIOGRAPHY Almond, Gabriel, and Sidney Verba. The Civic Culture. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1963. Anderson, Christopher, and Yuliya V. Tverdova. “Winners, Losers, and Attitudes toward Government in Contemporary Democracies.” International Political Science Review 22, no. 4 (2001): 321–338.
40 Alighieri, Dante Citrin, Jack. “Comment: The Political Relevance of Trust in Government.” American Political Science Review 68 (September 1974): 973–988. Dalton, Russell J. Citizen Politics: Public Opinion and Political Parties in Advanced Industrial Democracies. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2006. Easton, David. A Systems Analysis of Political Life. New York: Wiley, 1965. Finifter, Ada W. “Dimensions of Political Alienation.” American Political Science Review 64 (June 1970): 389–410. Herring, Cedric. “Alienated Politics and State Legitimacy: An Assessment of Three Neo-Marxian Theories.” Journal of Political and Military Sociology 15 (1987): 17–31. Inglehart, Ronald. Culture Shift in Advanced Industrial Society. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1990. ———. Modernization and Postmodernization: Cultural, Economic and Political Change in 43 Nations. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1997. Miller, Arthur. “Political Issues and Trust in Government.” American Political Science Review 68 (September 1974): 951–972. ———. “Rejoinder to ‘Comment’ by Jack Citrin: Political Discontent or Ritualism.” American Political Science Review 68 (September 1974): 989–1001. Nachmais, David. “Modes and Types of Political Alienation.” The British Journal of Sociology 25, no. 4 (1974): 478–493. Putnam, Robert D. Making Democracy Work: Civic Tradition in Modern Italy. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993. Putnam, Robert D., Susan J. Pharr, and Russell J. Dalton. “Introduction: What’s Troubling the Trilateral Democracies?” In Disaffected Democracies: What’s Troubling the Trilateral Countries, edited by Pharr and Putnam, 3–30. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2000. Schyns, Peggy, and Christal Koop. “Political Cynicism: Measurement, Characteristics and Consequences of a Growing Phenomenon.” Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Society of Political Psychology, Classical Chinese Garden, Portland, OR, July 2007, www.allacademic.com/meta/p204693_ index.html. Southwell, Priscilla L. “The Effect of Political Alienation on Voter Turnout, 1964–2000.” Journal of Political and Military Sociology 36, no. 1 (2008): 131–145.
scourge of his time. While the subject matter was undoubtedly inspired by his personal experiences, the text itself focuses on first principles. In Book One, Dante argues that for human society to thrive it required the establishment of a world ruler whose authority was supreme over all other sovereigns. Only such a ruler could ensure the peace that was a prerequisite for mankind’s fulfillment of God’s plan for humanity. Book Two turns to history to show that ancient Rome served such a role for humankind in the past and was serving God’s purpose at its height. The final book turns to the contemporary political system and makes the case that the Holy Roman Emperor’s power came directly from God and was independent of the pope. In making this case, Dante examines and refutes the key arguments in favor of papal authority in secular affairs. At their core, the three books of Monarchy argue that the key to peace in the thirteenth century and ultimately mankind’s ability to fulfill its role in God’s cosmic order depended on the reestablishment of a universal supreme political power through the institution of the Holy Roman Emperor. Scholars have criticized Monarchy as unrealistically utopian in an age when imperial authority was in decline and the text as repetitive. It certainly is medieval in organization and structure. Written in Latin, it draws heavily on Aristotelian thought and is permeated with biblical examples. In some ways Monarchy might best be seen as complementing Dante’s better-known Divine Comedy. If Divine Comedy sought to provide readers with a path to salvation in the next life, Monarchy sought to provide readers with a model that would ensure peace in this life.
Alighieri, Dante
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Dante Alighieri (1265–1321), best known as a poet because of his Divine Comedy, was also an active participant and observer of late medieval Italian city-state politics and the writer of Monarchy, a substantial work on political theory. Born in Florence, Dante embraced the active political life of his city. As a supporter of the White Guelf party, he served on several councils from 1295 and served in 1300 as one of six priors who constituted the executive body in Florence. In October 1301, Dante’s active political life ended when the rival Black Guelf party seized power in Florence through a coup. Dante was banished from the city and never returned to Florence. During the final twenty years of his life, Dante abandoned the White Guelf party and instead became an observer of Italian political culture as he traveled throughout northern Italy. Both through his experience in Florence and his travels in the region, Dante witnessed firsthand the coercive effects of factional strife and outside meddling on public order in Italian cities. While the exact date of its composition is uncertain, Monarchy, his response to the instability of the political system in Italy, was most likely completed in the final years of his life and almost certainly after 1314. The chief purpose of Monarchy was to provide a solution to the endemic political instability that Dante viewed as the key
See also Italian Political Thought; Political Theory. ERIC NELSON
BIBLIOGRAPHY Gilson, Etienne. Dante the Philosopher. Translated by David Moore. New York: Sheed and Ward, 1949. Shaw, Prue, ed. and trans. Dante: Monarchy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
Alker, Hayward R. American scholar Hayward Alker (1937–2008) held the John A. McCone Chair in International Relations at the University of Southern California (USC), where he specialized in the history of international relations theory, computational research methodologies, conflict resolution, and world order studies. In his 1997 book, The Future of International Relations, international affairs expert Iver Neumann named Alker one of twelve most influential thinkers in international relations. Alker was born in New York City in 1937 and raised in Greenwich, Connecticut. He earned his bachelor’s degree in mathematics from Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1959 and a doctorate in political science from Yale University in 1963. He stayed to teach at Yale and became a full professor at the age of twenty-nine. In 1968, Alker returned to MIT as a political science professor and remained there until joining USC in 1995. His career was marked also
Allegiance 41 by distinguished visiting professorships, including a 1989 appointment as the first Olaf Palme professor at the universities of Uppsala and Stockholm and a 1996 fellowship to study chaos theory at the Santa Fe Institute. Alker served as president of the International Studies Association from 1992–1993 and of the Institute of Defense and Disarmament Studies. He was also an adjunct faculty member of the Watson Institute. Alker’s wide-ranging contributions to his field include pioneering work on North-South dynamics within the United Nations, computational linguistics, mathematical modeling in the social sciences, the analysis of complex systems, social theory, and peace research. He was also responsible for pathbreaking work on bringing humanistic traditions back into the study of international relations. His many publications include Mathematics and Politics (1965), Rediscoveries and Reformations: Humanistic Methodologies for International Studies (1996), and the coauthored Journeys through Conflict: Narrative and Lessons (2001). He integrated mathematics and humanities into his investigations of artificial intelligence, globalism, and game theory. His last project, which he led at the Watson Institute, was on the dialectics of world orders. See also Conflict Resolution; International Relations; International Relations Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . GEORGE THOMAS KURIAN BIBLIOGRAPH Y Alker, Hayward. Mathematics and Politics. New York: Macmillan, 1965. ———. Rediscoveries and Reformulations: Humanistic Methodologies for International Studies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Alker, Hayward, Karl Wolfgang Deutsch, and Antoine H. Stoetzel. Mathematical Approaches to Politics. New York: Wiley, 1973. Alker, Hayward, Ted Robert Gurr, and Kumar Rupesinghe, eds. Journeys through Conflict: Narratives and Lessons. Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2001. Alker, Hayward, and Bruce M. Russett. World Politics in the General Assembly. New Haven, Conn.:Yale University Press, 1965. Neumann, Iver, and Ole Waever. The Future of International Relations, Masters in the Making. New York: Routledge, 1997.
Allegiance Allegiance, following Scottish philosopher David Hume, can be defined as loyalty and obedience to magistrates. Allegiance, however, can be owed not just to leaders and states, but to a range of institutions, ideals, and people. Examining the concept of allegiance raises questions such as to whom or what is allegiance owed; from what does allegiance derive; is allegiance absolute; can one have multiple allegiances or is there one that supersedes all others; and what happens if allegiances conflict? Once such questions are raised, it is clear that allegiance has a long history in Western and Eastern philosophies, religions, and politics. In the ancient world, questions of allegiance are examined and expressed in Sophocles’ Antigone, the Confucian notion of filial piety, Plato’s dialogues on the trial and death of Socrates, Diogenes the Cynic’s declaration that he is a citizen of the world, and Jesus’ edict to “render unto Caesar the things which are Caesar’s, and unto God what are God’s.” In the modern era,
questions of allegiance become intertwined with the social contract theory of English philosopher John Locke, which posits consent as the source of allegiance, and the contrasting views of Hume and English philosopher and statesman Edmund Burke, who suggest that one owes allegiance to one’s state, customs, and traditions not because one promised but because they were inherited from previous generations and provide stability and continuity in the present. And in the contemporary era, themes of allegiance are explicit in debates surrounding nationalism, patriotism, civil disobedience, and conscientious objection.
TO WHOM OR TO WHAT IS ALLEGIANCE OWED? Allegiance can be owed to institutions such as nation-states or churches, as well as to the ideals and principles, such as liberty, democracy, or a particular faith, that institutions embody and represent. Besides institutions, allegiance also can be owed to persons, such as political or religious leaders, or even to fellow compatriots, believers, ethnics, or to all of humanity. In addition to external entities, allegiance can be pledged internally to one’s conscience which, in turn, may be guided by higher laws derived from nature, reason, or religion. Like American philosopher Henry David Thoreau, pastor Martin Luther King Jr., Indian spiritual and political leader Mohandas Gandhi, and other conscientious objectors, one may ultimately decide to disobey civil laws and statutes if they violate one’s deeply held sense of justice. As such, civil disobedience is an expression of allegiance to a higher law that transcends civil laws and ensures that one is not complicit in the injustice they oppose. Thus, allegiance to a state can conflict with allegiance to one’s conscience, as well as to subnational units (e.g., a local community) or to supranational entities and ideals (e.g., diasporas or loyalty to humanity).
ON WHAT IS ALLEGIANCE FOUNDED? Allegiance can be founded on chosen or unchosen sources, with classical and contemporary liberals defending the former and communitarians the latter. Chosen allegiance derives from consent (either express or tacit) that is central to social contract theory. Express consent, following Locke and English revolutionary Thomas Paine, is a promise one makes to grant authority to and obey a government provided that, in return, the government protects the liberties, rights, and common good of its citizens. Free will is a central element of express consent and can be found in the oath recited at naturalization ceremonies in the United States, in which new citizens pledge their allegiance to the Constitution and foreswear their former national allegiances. Tacit consent also produces allegiance, but does so indirectly, as in Socrates’ explanation that he implicitly promised to obey the laws of Athens when he chose to live there and benefit from its protection. Tacit consent may be reinforced through socialization rituals, such as when millions of public schoolchildren in the United States begin their school day with the Pledge of Allegiance or when their French counterparts are prohibited from displays of religious identity in order to reinforce a secular national identity.
42 Allegiance
In 1778, George Washington signed an oath of allegiance to the Congress of the United States. Washington’s express consent granted authority to and his obedience toward the new government. Source: The Granger Collection, New York
Unchosen allegiance, in contrast, derives not from a promise but from social necessity, birth, and traditions.The traditions that form the community or nation into which one is born give that person predetermined identities and duties of allegiance prior to the exercise of free will. Upon maturing, communitarians allow that persons may continue to adhere to those identities, traditions, and allegiances or may modify them within limits, but they are likely to remain deeply constitutive of their identity. Some political and ethnoreligious identities and allegiances are passed on in this fashion. Politically, communitarians and conservatives often echo Burke’s defense of custom, tradition, and the “little platoons” that give people their sense of history and social obligations. Ethnoreligiously, this can be found in allegiance to one’s group that may be held in higher regard than allegiance to one’s state, especially if the group is subject to persecution or discrimination by the state.
IS ALLEGIANCE SINGULAR OR PLURAL; HOW IS CONFLICT RESOLVED? Contemporary liberal theor ists generally suggest that loyalty to a state rests on adherence to a set of unifying civic principles and ideals that diverse people can consent to, but add that individuals can have a multiplicity of identities, social roles, groups, and institutions to which they owe allegiance.
Depending on the context, individuals can modify and alter the priority of these allegiances. Thus, multiple allegiances are not inherently problematic because this reflects the multiple identities of the self. If there is a conflict between two or three entities to which individuals owe allegiance (e.g., one’s country, faith, or ethnic group), contemporary liberals generally allow individuals the freedom to choose which one is primary, and if necessary defend their right to engage in civil disobedience even in subtle forms such as abstaining from reciting the Pledge of Allegiance for religious reasons. For communitarian and conservative theorists, individuals typically do not have unlimited freedom to decide which allegiance takes priority if their allegiance to the state conflicts with an allegiance to some other entity or belief. As a result, states are typically granted the authority to compel compliance with the laws or limit the rights of those who wish to engage in civil disobedience. Further, communitarian and conservative theorists generally suggest that loyalty to a state rests on a thicker set of shared moral values, and they add that individuals have a limited ability to modify their identities and allegiances. Because subnational or supranational allegiances are potentially disruptive, they must be subsumed under a unifying national allegiance. This is one reason why John F. Kennedy was asked whether his Roman Catholic faith would supersede
Alliances 43 his allegiance to the Constitution if he were elected president of the United States. However, despite some tensions caused by plural allegiances, the federalist structure of Canada and the European Union allow subnational, national, and supranational allegiances to coexist. See also Authority; Burke, Edmund; Civic Engagement; Civil Society; Communitarianism; Hume, David; Liberal Theory; Locke, John; Nation; Nationalism; Social Contract; Socialization, Political; Tradition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GREGORY W. STREICH BIBLIOGRAPH Y Hume, David. “Of the Original Contract.” In Hume’s Moral and Political Philosophy, edited Henry D. Aiken, 356–372. New York: Hafner, 1948. Locke, John. Second Treatise of Government, edited by Richard Cox. Arlington Heights, Ill.: Croft Classics, 1982. Nussbaum, Martha. For Love of Country: Debating the Limits of Patriotism, edited by Joshua Cohen. Boston: Beacon, 1996.
Alliances Alliances, or formal associations between two political bodies to further their common interests, are one of the most recurrent phenomena in the field of international politics. Most definitions of alliance focus on four basic elements: its formal nature (based on a treaty signed by states), its cooperative dimension (states agree to join forces to pursue some common goal), its external orientation (alliances are usually against states outside their own membership), and its military character (the content of cooperation is related to security). Overall, this conception is a correct one, albeit of a limited nature.
POWER AGGREGATION MODEL Most scholars believe that underlying all alliances are the convergent interests of the individual member and that the interests in question are directly linked to security, broadly defined as protection against a powerful enemy. Thus an alliance is simply—or mostly—the union of the forces of those who, fearing that they are incapable of dealing with the enemy on their own, decide to cooperate with other states in the same situation. This is the essence of the power aggregation model, which is probably the most common interpretation of alliances. It should be pointed out that balance of power theory, and alliance theory, clearly overlap. As stated by Hans Morgenthau in 1973, alliances are nothing more than a means whereby states maintain an approximately equal distribution of power; as such, alliances are a particular manifestation of the more general state behavior known as “balancing.” This classical view has been partly modified by noticing that the behaviour of states is not based on the need to balance power but to deal with threats, as described by Stephen Walt (1987): In deciding whether a given state represents a threat to our security, we need to take account not only of its aggregate power, but also of its geographical proximity, its offensive power, and its aggressive intentions.
BALANCING VERSUS BANDWAGONING However, states do not always unite against a state that threatens them. Sometimes, on the contrary, they form alliances with the latter, thus adopting a policy known as bandwagoning. The dichotomy of balancing versus bandwagoning has been hotly debated, and there is no agreement on which represents the most common behavior, in empirical terms. To further complicate matters, scholars such as Randall Schweller (1994) argue that the term bandwagoning should be used to refer to alliance not with the state posing the threat, but simply with strong states. From this perspective, the most important factor affecting alignment is the compatibility of various different states’ political objectives rather than the power (or threat) imbalance: If one state is satisfied with the status quo, it will join a conservative alliance, even if the latter is the strongest force. On the other hand, a revisionist state will be driven more by the desire for “profit” than by the desire for security, and thus will align itself with the strongest revisionist power in ascendance at the time.
TOOLS OF MANAGEMENT All those views, despite their differences, share the same conception of alliances as aggregation of power. Yet, alliances also can be seen as something profoundly different; i.e., as tools of management. A rapid survey of the most important alliances from 1815 to 1945 led Paul Schroeder to conclude in 1976 that the wish to aggregate power against a threat is not always of vital importance for the creation of an alliance; that all alliances work, to a certain degree, restricting and controlling the actions of the allies themselves; and that certain alliances may be employed in order that even an adversary joins our side and is thereby constrained by the alliance itself. Those ideas have brought to the forefront the fundamental issue of interallied relations, shedding light on their ambiguous nature. Accordingly, some political scientists, such as Patricia Weitsman (2004), have expanded the role of threat in the creation and functioning of alliances to include threats posed by one’s ally. Others, such as Jeremy Pressman (2008), have focused on how states use alliances to restrain their partners, thereby preventing war. The most important contribution, however, comes from Glenn Snyder’s (1997) alliance security dilemma. In every alliance, states tend to oscillate between two opposite fears—abandonment and entrapment.The former concern is that an ally abandons us, either directly (by abrogating a treaty, for example) or indirectly (by denying its diplomatic support during a crisis). The latter refers to the risk of being drawn into a war provoked by an intransigent or reckless ally. The common response to the fear of abandonment is to “get closer” to the ally; that is, to increase those incentives that may induce the ally into keeping its initial pledge. The usual response to the fear of entrapment is to “get away”; that is, to reduce one’s obligations or threaten to withdraw one’s support. If a state chooses to get closer, it reduces the risk of abandonment but increases the risk of entrapment; on the other hand, if a state chooses to get away, the opposite will be true. Thus, the policies adopted to prevent
44 Almond, Gabriel abandonment make entrapment that much more likely, just as the policies designed to avoid entrapment make abandonment more likely.
A TYPOLOGY OF ALLIANCES All this points at a striking variety of types of alliance, as can be seen not only in the degree to which the various members condition the behavior of the others, but also in the tone of their relations, which may vary from tense to cordial, and from a position of reciprocal support to one of mutual diffidence. One way of dealing with such a variety is by means of a typology of alliances, based on two dimensions, one internal and one external. The first allows one to distinguish between symmetric and asymmetric alliances, according to whether power relations between the allies are balanced or skewed in favor of one of them, respectively. In the second dimension, we have homogeneous and heterogeneous alliances, depending on whether members respond to converging constraints and opportunities, or on whether they react to diverging constraints and opportunities, respectively. Combining these classes of alliance, four types are obtained. In the aggregation alliance (homogeneous and symmetric), decisions are taken by mutual consent, and both parties obtain reasons for satisfaction from their collaboration. In the guarantee alliance (homogeneous and asymmetric), although the weaker party’s interests are safeguarded, the content of the agreements reflects first of all the major ally’s preferences. In the hegemonic alliance (heterogeneous and asymmetric), the two parties are in divergent positions, and the imbalance in power relations allows the major ally to drag the other ally along, imposing solutions that are at least partially damaging for the latter. And in the deadlocked alliance (heterogeneous and symmetric), the members, who have equal bargaining power and hold positions that are difficult to reconcile, end up paralyzing each other. See also Autonomy; Balance of Power; Bandwagoning; Power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MARCO CESA BIBLIOGRAPH Y Cesa, Marco. Allies Yet Rivals: International Politics in 18th Century Europe. Translated by Patrick Barr. Standford, Calif.: Standford University Press, forthcoming. Liska, George. Nations in Alliance.The Limits of Interdependence. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1962. Morgenthau, Hans J. Politics among Nations:The Struggle for Power and Peace, 5th ed., rev. New York: Knopf, 1973. Pressman, Jeremy. Warring Friends: Alliance Restraint in International Politics. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2008. Schroeder, Paul W. “Alliances, 1815–1945: Weapons of Power and Tools of Management.” In Historical Dimensions of National Security Problems, edited by Klaus Knorr, 227–262. Lawrence, Kan.: Allen, 1976. Schweller, Randall L. “Bandwagoning for Profit: Bringing the Revisionist State Back In.” International Security 19, no. 1 (1994): 72–107. Snyder, Glenn H. Alliance Politics. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1997. Weitsman, Patricia A. Dangerous Alliances: Proponents of Peace,Weapons of War. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2004. Walt, Stephen M. The Origins of Alliances. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1987.
Almond, Gabriel Born in Rock Island, Illinois, American political scientist Gabriel A. Almond (1911–2002) was one of the most influential scholars in comparative politics during the 1950s and 1960s, when he was the first chair of the Social Science Research Council’s Committee on Comparative Politics. His work stood out as a pioneering attempt to achieve a truly comparative framework for the study of politics, one that encompassed non-Western countries and thus broke with the European focus of much prior research in comparative politics. Almond received his PhD in political science in 1938 from the University of Chicago, where he studied with Charles Merriam and Harold Lasswell, two of the main representatives of what became known as the Chicago School of Political Science. After teaching at Brooklyn College (now part of City University of New York) and working for the U.S. government during World War II (1939–1945), Almond returned to academia and taught at Yale University (1946–1950, 1959–1963), Princeton University (1950–1959), and Stanford University (1963–1976). Almond’s most important work consisted of a series of publications, starting in the mid-1950s, in which he formulated a structural-functional approach to the study of political development. He saw the political system as comprised of structures, such as political parties, legislatures, and bureaucracies, which performed distinct functions, such as articulating and aggregating the preferences of citizens, making and implementing public policy, and maintaining overall political stability. Drawing on the distinction between structures and functions, he developed a broad typology of varieties of democratic and nondemocratic political systems.This framework was applied by many researchers to developing countries in Latin America and particularly to the countries of Asia and Africa that achieved independence following World War II. Almond also wrote a pioneering book on political culture. The Civic Culture (1963), coauthored with Sidney Verba, was a pathbreaking work that demonstrated the potential of comparative studies using survey research. It distinguished three kinds of citizen orientation toward politics: parochial, subject, and participant. It argued that a civic culture, composed of a balanced mixture of individuals from all three orientations, was the most conducive to democracy. Later in his career, in Crisis, Choice, and Change (1973), Almond sought to develop an integrated theory of political change by combining his structural-functional approach with other approaches that put more emphasis on the role of political leaders, choice, and contingency. The goal of this work, he wrote, was to connect the theory of statics provided by a structural-functional approach to a theory of dynamics. Almond became a professor emeritus at Stanford in 1976 and continued to write and publish. His later research included works on the intellectual history of, and the ongoing debates within, political science and comparative politics. Almond’s prolific career spanned seven decades, and his achievements were well recognized.Among other things, he was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1961, served as president of the
Althusius, Johannes 45 American Political Science Association in 1965 to 1966, and was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1977. See also Development, Economic; Politics, Comparative. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GERARDO L. MUNCK BIBLIOGRAPH Y Almond, Gabriel A. A Discipline Divided: Schools and Sects in Political Science. Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1990. Almond, Gabriel A., and James S. Coleman, eds. The Politics of the Developing Areas. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1960. Almond, Gabriel A., Scott C. Flanagan, and Robert J. Mundt, eds. Crisis, Choice, and Change: Historical Studies of Political Development. Boston: Little, Brown, 1973. Almond, Gabriel A., and G. Bingham Powell Jr. Comparative Politics: Systems, Processes, and Policy. Boston: Little, Brown, 1978. Almond, Gabriel A., and Sidney Verba. The Civic Culture; Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1963. Munck, Gerardo L., and Richard Snyder. Passion, Craft, and Method in Comparative Politics. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007.
Alternate Delegate An alternate delegate is someone appointed or elected to act as a substitute if a delegate is absent or otherwise cannot fulfill the required duties at a political meeting, conference, or session. Alternate delegates are seated with their delegation and attend all meetings and functions. If they replace a delegate, alternates also engage in debate and vote on matters. In the U.S. political system, alternate delegates are chosen along with delegates to participate in party nominating conventions. Selection as an alternate delegate is generally considered an honor or a reward for contributions to the party. For instance, at the 2008 Republican National Convention, there were 2,380 delegates, with 2,227 alternates. Alternates may be selected by the delegate they replace, by the state delegation, or through a party election. Like delegates, alternates usually have to commit to a candidate prior to the convention (unless the candidate releases the delegates or unless they are formally classified as uncommitted). Requirements to be an alternate delegate vary from state to state, but generally candidates are required to be at least eighteen years old, a party member, and a resident of the district that they represent for a specified time prior to their selection. See also Candidate Selection; Political Participation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TOM LANSFORD
Althusius, Johannes Johannes Althusius (1557–1638) was born in Diedenshausen in Westphalia. After studying in Cologne, Paris, Geneva, and Basel, he took a doctorate in both civil and ecclesiastical law at Basel in 1586. In the same year he accepted a position on the law faculty at the Reformed Academy in Hebron. Upon
the publication of his most famous work, Politica, in 1603, Althusius was offered the position of Syndic in Emden, East Frisia, where he guided the city until his death in 1638. Althusius had tremendous influence in this city for thirty-five years, a city that was one of the first in Germany to accept the Reformed articles of faith. His appointment at Emden, and its association with the Reformation, reflect his intellectual debt to John Calvin. Like Calvin’s Institutes of the Christian Religion, Althusius argued in Politica that all power and government come from God, and civil authorities cannot use their power to serve any ends other than God’s. Thus, a citizen’s first allegiance is to God. Politica was widely embraced by the Dutch, who saw it as a theoretical justification for their revolt against the Spanish. While not generally recognized in the modern canon, Politica was a divisive force during its time. Althusius calls for a unifying covenant, a covenant that is quite different from the social contract of Thomas Hobbes or John Locke. The covenant must be agreed to by all who enter it. Althusius is accused of transforming all public law into private law with his idea of covenant. He preserves this distinction, but recognizes the connection and symbiotic relationship between the two. Althusius finds the origins of his federal design, and understanding of covenant, in the Bible and bases the design on biblical lessons: (1) The federal design is based on a network of covenants beginning with the original covenant between God and man on which all others are based. (2) The classical biblical commonwealth was a federation of tribes tied to one another by covenant that functioned as a unifying set of laws between the tribes. (3) The Bible ends with a restoration of the tribal system on a global scale in which each nation is able to preserve its own integrity while supporting a common covenant. Althusius’ biblical observations served as the inspiration for his theoretical work that confronted the problem of divisible sovereignty. For a federal system to work, sovereignty must be divided among the constituent parts while still binding the parts to the whole. Althusius addressed this problem by relying on a covenant that would bind the sovereign parts to a sovereign whole. This arrangement mirrors the symbiotic relationship that exists between private law and public law. Althusius’ work contributed to the intellectual reputation of the Reformation. He wrote in direct refutation of the theory of indivisible sovereignty as understood by Jean Bodin. The idea of a single sovereign and self-determination could not be reconciled until Althusius introduced his theory of federalism with the covenant as its central feature. See also Calvin, John; Protestant Political Thought; Reformation Political Thought. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . KYLE SCOTT BIBLIOGRAPHY Althusius, Johannes. Politica. Translated by Frederick S. Carney, with a foreword by Daniel J. Elazar. Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 1995.
46 Althusser, Louis
Althusser, Louis Louis Althusser (1918–1990) was a French philosopher who attempted to reconcile Marxism with structuralism. His works influenced Marxist thought in the West. Althusser was born in Birmandries in French Algeria and was educated in Algiers, Marseilles, and Lyon, where he attended the Lycee du Parc. In 1939 he was admitted to the Ecole Normale Superieure (ENS), the French academy for teachers, but he was conscripted into the French Army. Althusser would later observe how Machiavelli thought conscription helped establish national identity. Althusser was captured and spent five years in a German concentration camp, most of that time in Stalag XA, located in Schleswig. After the war, he entered the ENS. While at ENS, Althusser suffered from and was treated for clinical depression. In 1948, Althusser joined the Community Party and completed his master’s thesis on the German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel.Althusser became a tutor at ENS and spent his entire academic career there, eventually becoming a professor of philosophy. Althusser rose to prominence in the mid-1960s through the publication of his works in which he attempts to reinterpret the ideas of philosopher Karl Marx. For Marx (1969) (first published as Pour Marx in 1965 by Francois Maspero, Paris) was a collection of articles that had been previously been published in La Pen and La Nouvelle Critique and was regarded as the seminal text in the school of structuralist Marxism. Althusser viewed Marxism as a revolutionary science. While Marx, in his writings, argued that all aspects of life were dependent on the superstructure of economic production (economic determinism), Althusser believed that the foundations of societies were based on one of three processes: economic practice, politico-legal practice, and ideological practice. In the 1970 essay “Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses: Notes toward an Investigation,” Althusser (2001) emphasizes the scientific aspects of Marxism, in particular its investigation of how societal structures determine lived experience. These structures determined history, but their importance and relationship to one another varied with circumstances. Therefore, at different times particular practices might be dominant. He also cited the existence of ideological state apparatuses, which include the family, mass media, religious institutions, and education. He suggested that these apparatuses are agents of repression and inevitable. Therefore, it is impossible to escape ideology. Althusser contended that there were differences between the “young” and the “mature” Marx, that what he called an “epistemological break” had taken place in the 1840s, and that the mature Marx was more “scientific” than he had been as a younger writer. Althusser believed that Marx had been misunderstood because his work had been considered as a whole, rather than as the product of distinct intellectual periods. However, Althusser would later backtrack on the timing of this break in Marx’s work. In his 1969 essay “Preface to Capital Volume One,” Althusser (2001) concedes that the scientific
approach is only found in the Critique of the Gotha Programme, which Marx wrote in 1875. Later, in 1976’s “Elements of Self Criticism,” Althusser suggested that this “break” was a process rather than a clearly defined event. Another work in a similar vein was Lire le Capital, a collection of essays by Althusser and some of his students published in 1965, based on a seminar about Marx’s Das Kapital conducted by Althusser at the ENS. Althusser’s career essentially came to an end in 1980 when he murdered his wife, Helene. He was declared unfit to stand trial and was institutionalized until 1983. During the last years of his life, Athusser wrote two versions of his autobiography, Les Faits (The Facts) and L’Avenir dure Longtemps (The Future Lasts a Long Time), which were published posthumously in 1992 as a single volume: The Future Lasts Forever: A Memoir. See also Communism; Hegel, Georg W. F.; Marx, Karl; Marxism; Marxist Parties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
JEFFREY KRAUS
BIBLIOGRAPHY Althusser, Louis. For Marx, translated by Ben Brewster. London: Penguin, 1969. ———. “Elements of Self-Criticism.” In Essays in Self-Criticism, translated by Grahame Lock, 101–162. London: New Left, 1976. ———. The Future Lasts Forever: A Memoir, edited by Oliver Corpet and Yann Moulier Boutang, translated by Richard Veasey. New York: New Press, 1993. ———. “Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses: Notes toward an Investigation.” In The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism, edited by Vincent B. Leitch, 1483–1509. New York: Norton, 2001. ———. 1971. “Preface to Capital Volume One.” In Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays. New York: Monthly Review Press, 2001. Althusser, Louis, and Etienne Balibar. Lier le Capital. Paris: François Maspero, 1965. Elliott, Gregory. Althusser:The Detour of Theory. New York:Verso, 1987. Ferretter, Luke. Louis Althusser. Routledge Critical Thinkers. London: Routledge, 2006. Montag, Warren. Louis Althusser. Hampshire, U.K.: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003. Resch, Robert Paul. Althusser and the Renewal of Marxist Social Theory. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992. Smith, Steven B. Reading Althusser: An Essay on Structural Marxism. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1984.
Amendments, Constitutional See Constitutional Amendments.
Americanization The term Americanization refers to the perceived spread and absorption of presumed American values, practices, methods, beliefs, and symbols. This definition is important because some things taken to be American are not in fact of American origin. Further, critics of Americanization sometimes wrongly overestimate the spread of Americanization, the rate of absorption, and the American desire to promote presumed American things. In 1835, sociologist Alexis de Tocqueville laid out the essence of American identity, comprising a combination of populism, egalitarianism, liberty, individualism, and laissez-faire. Equally important was a distrust of big government and a belief that
Americanization 47 local power was more responsive to people’s needs. These values have more recently been dubbed the “American Creed,” based on a form of “dissenting Protestantism.” The creed comprises five elements, which Samuel Huntington (2004) lists as individual rights, the people as the legitimate source of political power, government limited by law and the people, a belief in limited or small government, and private property.
DOMESTIC AMERICANIZATION Americanization includes domestic and international variants. Domestically, the term refers to the socialization of immigrants to the United States. Philip Bell defines it as “a process by which an alien acquires our language, citizenship, customs, and ideals” (1998, 1). Acculturation, however, does not necessarily lead to assimilation, as studies of Jewish and other immigrants have shown. Americanization domestically is not as assimilatory as its founders originally suggested, and some states such as Florida, California, and Texas have informal policies of Spanish-English bilingualism. In 2000, some forty-seven million people, or 18 percent of the population, spoke a language other than English at home. Images of the melting pot have been replaced by the salad bowl or mixed salad, suggesting tolerance for cultural diversity and multiculturalism. Ideals of religious and cultural freedom can be seen as new forms of Americanization, where respect for difference is celebrated. Americanization must be seen as a two-way street. It involves the assimilation of foreign cultures and peoples, the transformation of cultural products, and their export outside America’s borders. The United States is a massive consumer of culture as well as a producer of it. Americans have been highly receptive to foreign influences and immigrants, which has affected the creation of new forms of culture, movies, food, fashions, architecture, science, and so on. As Richard Pells (2005) argues, It is precisely these foreign influences that have made America’s culture so popular for so long in so many places. American culture spread throughout the world because it has habitually drawn on foreign styles and ideas. Americans have then reassembled and repackaged the cultural products they received from abroad, and retransmitted them to the rest of the planet. (190)
INTERNATIONAL AMERICANIZATION Americanization also has international dimensions. American variants of democracy, trade liberalization, and culture are often seen as attractive outside America’s borders, and perceived American practices are often spontaneously adopted and reinterpreted in different cultural contexts. Thus, America not only projects hard military power, as Joseph Nye (2008) has shown, but the soft power of cultural attraction and diplomacy as well. Historically, Americanization involved the spread of democratic institutions and the promotion of free trade. This began in the 1850s with America’s opening of Japan for international trade, later culminating in its “open door” policies for the Asia-Pacific in the 1890s. It also coincided with the spread of Wilsonian liberal democracy after 1919. After
World War II (1939–1945), the U.S. government promoted a mixture of democracy, free trade, international institutions to regulate trade, new international markets, opening of closed economic systems, currency convertibility, access to world markets and materials, and a reduction in domestic barriers to trade. Institutions such as the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, the United Nations, and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade all promoted an economic agenda favored by America and its allies. In parts of Latin America and Central Europe, a form of economic Americanization was expressed in the 1990s through the Washington Consensus, a World Bank project that sought to reduce social spending and increase the level of privatization. Americanization is sometimes used as shorthand for large-scale industrialization or assembly-line manufacturing, like Fordism. As such, Americanization can figure as a stand-in for Westernization or globalization, even if in today’s economic climate the majority of manufactured goods are produced outside of the United States. America’s massive domestic market has enabled American industries to create products at home before trialing them abroad. This has further been facilitated by the fact that more than one billion people speak English, making the “American” language of business and culture a global language. People outside the United States may pick and choose what elements of American culture they consume. For the most part, people are conditioned by their families, local cultures, and circumstances, which allows them to filter and select what they want and don’t want. The success of Americanization often lies in the ability of corporate mass culture to adapt and change to suit local needs rather than forcing the same product on everyone.There is considerable variation in how American values, practices, methods, beliefs, and symbols are adopted. Some authors now reject the idea of American cultural imperialism, pointing instead to a more nuanced and complex model of reappropriation, negotiation, and creolization. One might therefore see Americanization as a “tool box,” a series of resources that can be selected or rejected by cultural and national groups as they see fit, depending on what elements of Americanization suit their cultures. As such, it makes more sense to speak of Americanization as being polyvalent, comprising military, economic, cultural, and other characteristics, some of which may seem more attractive than others. Americanization as a process must also be seen as dynamic and in constant evolution. What America and Americanization mean is subject to continual discussion with each new generation of Americans. See also Assimilation; Globalization; Individualism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DAVID MACDONALD BIBLIOGRAPHY Bell, Philip. Americanization and Australia. Crow’s Nest, Australia: University of New South Wales Press, 1998. Bruno, Rosalind, and Hyon Shin. Language Use and English-Speaking Ability: 2000. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Census Bureau, October 2003. Fluck, Winfried. “California Blue: Americanization as Self-Americanization.” In Americanization and Anti-Americanism:The German Encounter with
48 Amicus Curiae Briefs American Culture after 1945, edited by Alexander Stephan, 221–237. New York: Berghahn, 2005. Huntington, Samuel. Who Are We? The Challenges to America’s National Identity. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004. Ignatieff, Michael, ed. American Exceptionalism and Human Rights. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2006. Katzenstein, Peter, and Robert Keohane, eds. Anti-Americanisms in World Politics. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2006. Kohut, Andrew, and Bruce Stokes. America against the World: How We Are Different and Why We Are Disliked. New York: Holt, 2007. Nye, Joseph. The Powers to Lead. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008. Pells, Richard. “Double Crossings: The Reciprocal Relationship between American and European Culture in the Twentieth Century.” In Americanization and Anti-Americanism:The German Encounter with American Culture after 1945, edited by Alexander Stephan, 189–201. New York: Berghahn, 2005. Rifkin, Jeremy. The European Dream. London: Tarcher Penguin, 2004. Rivas, Darlene. “Patriotism and Petroleum: Anti-Americanism in Venezuela from Gomez to Chavez.” In Anti-Americanism in Latin America and the Caribbean, edited by Alan McPherson, 84–112. New York: Berghahn, 2006. Seltzer, Robert, and Norman Cohen. The Americanization of the Jews. New York: New York University Press, 1995.
Amicus Curiae Briefs Amicus curiae is Latin, meaning “friend of the court.” Amicus briefs are submitted to the Supreme Court by a party that is not directly involved in a case. The briefs offer support for a particular party to a case. An amicus curiae brief often will illustrate relevant legal matters that briefs submitted by those directly involved fail to address. These briefs can be submitted at two stages of the Supreme Court decision-making process: when the justices are deciding if they will hear a case and after the Court has decided to hear the case on merits. Usually, permission must be granted by either party, or the Supreme Court, for an amicus curiae brief to be submitted. Legal representatives of government, however, need not obtain permission to submit a brief. It is exceptionally rare for an amicus brief not to gain the permission of the party or of the Court. Most legal scholars believe that amicus briefs impact the Supreme Court’s decisions. Research suggests that amicus briefs have a positive impact on the likelihood that a case will be selected for a decision on the merits. Additionally, arguments made in the accompanying briefs often are found in the opinions of the Court, suggesting that the justices are willing to adopt the reasoning suggested in amicus briefs. See also Supreme Court. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TOBIAS T. GIBSON BIBLIOGRAPH Y Caldeira, Gregory A., and John R. Wright. “Organized Interests and Agenda Setting in the U.S. Supreme Court.” American Political Science Review 82 (1988): 1109–1127. ———. “Amici Curiae before the Supreme Court: Who Participates, When, and How Much?” Journal of Politics 52 (1990): 782–806. Collins, Paul M., Jr. Friends of the Supreme Court: Interest Groups and Judicial Decision Making. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008. Hansford, Thomas G. “Information Provision, Organizational Constraints, and the Decision to Submit an Amicus Curiae Brief in a U.S. Supreme Court Case.” Political Research Quarterly 57 (2004): 219–230.
Analytic Narrative The expression analytic narrative sounds like an oxymoron. A narrative can be defined as a report of human actions and resulting events that makes the temporal order of these actions and events clear, with the primary purpose of making them intelligible to the public. There seems to be no concept of analysis that fits narratives; if anything, they are syntheses (of description and account, art and knowledge, entertainment and instruction). Still, analytic narrative has become a tag in today’s social sciences, especially in the “political economy” literature that flourishes at the crossroads of economics, politics, and history. Usually, analytic narrative means little more than storytelling with significant theoretical underpinnings (for an example, see Dani Rodrick’s 2003 publication In Search for Prosperity: Analytic Narratives on Economic Growth). A few users of the expression are keenly aware of the paradox it raises, and for them it means no less than a new approach to history, one that would be capable of reconciling the narrative mode of this discipline with the model-building activity of theoretical economics and politics. Prominent in this group are Robert H. Bates, Avner Greif, Margaret Levi, Jean-Laurent Rosenthal, and Barry R. Weingast, whose 1998 Analytic Narratives is the most sustained attempt to make sense of the tag, both in terms of methodological theorizing and concrete applications. This entry reviews this contribution before expanding on the issues more broadly.
CASE STUDIES: MEDIEVAL GENOA TO THE INTERNATIONAL COFFEE ORGANIZATION During the Middle Ages, the city-state of Genoa underwent a succession of peaceful consulate system, civil war between the leading families, and civil peace under a new political system, the podesteria. Historians’ best narratives fail to explain this sequence satisfactorily, and furthermore, to discern all the relevant questions. For instance, the first period was accompanied with a variable pattern of maritime activity in terms of raids and conquered possessions that also needs explaining. Avner Greif responds by constructing two extensive form games of perfect information involving the clans as strategic players. The first explores the clans’ trade-off between maintaining mutual deterrence and participating in maritime operations. It accounts both for the variability within the first period and— using external threat as the variable parameter—its collapse into civil war. The second game, which the podestà enters as a player, rationalizes his stabilizing effect in the third period. Subgame perfect equilibrium is used to solve both games. Each period is first described in a pretheoretic narrative to clarify the open problems, second analyzed in a corresponding model, and third discussed and checked in another narrative that uses the theoretical language of the second stage. The problem for a classic historian is understanding why France and England followed such different paces of institutional change in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: one country keeping the absolutist monarchy throughout while the other gradually established representative government. Jean-Laurent Rosenthal’s answer emphasizes the two
Analytic Narrative 49 countries’ difference in fiscal structure. Given that the product of taxes was mostly spent on wars, Rosenthal investigated how a country’s style of warfare relates to its political regime. His argument combines standard narrative parts with the use of an extensive form game that is formalized in an appendix. The two players, the king and the elite (an abstraction representing the French and English parliaments, and the provincial estates where they existed in France) enjoy separate fiscal resources and try to make the best of them in fighting profitable wars. The king alone has the power of launching a war, and if he exerts it, the elite decide whether to participate financially. Because most wars need joint funding, there is a free rider problem that is more acute when the fiscal resources are shared than when they are in one player’s hands; when the prediction that wars are the more frequent, the higher the king’s share of fiscal resources. For Rosenthal, France’s absolutism was a case of sharing, whereas England’s representative government was one of near control by the elite. Rosenthal’s model can be tested on the two countries and, if confirmed, will illuminate the connection between their warfare and political regimes. However, it is unclear what it contributes to the initial question of their different paces of political change. In the nineteenth century, there was a trend in the West to reform military service to more or less universal conscription. Standard histories emphasize democratization and military efficiency, but military efficiency is unclear, and against democratization, reforms took place either before (in Prussia) or later (in France and the United States) than universal suffrage prevailed. Starting from these objections, Margaret Levi narrates the changes in French and American regulations, attending not only to the chronological problem but also to the technical forms of buying out one’s military duty (substitution, replacement, commutation). Her narrative is analytic to the extent that it relies on an informal model in the spirit of formal political economy. The main actors are the government, which strives to employ the population efficiently, the constituents, who are divided into social classes with distinctive preferences, and a pivotal legislator, who aligns himself on the coalition prevailing among the classes. Hypothesized changes in the preferences of the government and the middle classes account for the observed change in regulations that is sensitive to its fine-grained features. Historians of the United States have long been puzzled by the relative stability of the federation of the states through the decades before the Civil War (1861–1865). Classical historians argue that slavery became a divisive issue only after a certain period, and that the Democratic Party following Andrew Jackson managed a successful coalition of Southern and Northern interests. Others put forward local political issues and changing economic conditions. Barry R. Weingast combines these factors into a narrative that stresses explicit political arrangements, especially the “rule of balance” between slave and free states (they should remain equal in number to preserve the South’s veto power in the Senate). Crises typically occurred when a new state was admitted. The first newly admitted state brought about a compromise that helped resolve the second, but this did
not work with the third. To keep an effective balance despite the continuing expansion to the West, the slave economy should have developed beyond its feasible limits; this is why conflict became unavoidable. Weingast’s explanatory narrative accommodates three formal models: one of the spatial brand of mathematical politics and the other two of the extensive form brand of game theory. These models fully clarify his claim that the rule of balance was necessary to maintain federal stability. From 1962 to 1989, the International Coffee Organization (ICO) regulated coffee prices by setting export quotas to its members, notably Brazil and Colombia, which were the main producers. The birth of the ICO raises strategic issues that Robert H. Bates addresses in an original format of narrative. He recounts the same event three times: Brazil and Colombia unsuccessfully tried to gather other coffee producers; they brandished the communist threat to trap the United States, their main consumer, into their cartel organization; despite congressional reservations, the United States accepted the deal when Brazil and Colombia’s large coffee-selling companies supported it. Each partial narrative is followed by a formal argument—not an actual proper model—that supports it but leaves an explanatory residual that motivates the next narrative step. Bates’s discussion of the operations of ICO involves the same alternation.
SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES AMONG CASE STUDIES There is much common ground between the previous five studies: Each begins with a set of historical problems that generally emerge from a critique of the extant literature (only the ICO case is too recent for such a reflective start).The problems often concern fine temporal patterns and variations that previous scholarship simply took for granted. A clear answer is finally given, which a modeling effort has contributed to shape, and the authors’ methodology emphasizes not only explanation but also empirical testing. This is because their explanatory hypotheses, especially when they are duly formalized, deductively entail more than just the chosen explanandum. There is room for independent testing, ideally by varying parameters such as Rosenthal’s fiscal sharing ratio, but also less formally as when Greif supports his account of podesteria in Genoa by discussing the form it took elsewhere. It is evident from the authors’ related contributions that they believe to have uncovered theoretical patterns that can be transferred successfully. For an example, see Greif ’s (2004) “A Theory of Endogenous Institutional Change” in which he highlights Genoa as a particular case. Still, it is dubious that the studies rely on genuine lawlike regularities, and Analytic Narratives (Bates et al. 1998) explicitly distances them from Carl Hempel’s 1965 Aspects of Scientific Explanation. An unresolved methodological issue is to locate the new genre between this extreme construal and its alternatives, or put more simply, to decide of what the generality of the suggested explanations really consists. The dissimilarities between the studies in Analytic Narratives (Bates et al. 1998) are no less striking, as they relate to the very concept that supposedly unites them. Greif and Bates develop
50 Analytic Narrative a clear scheme of alternation between narration and analysis, with a ternary rhythm in Greif and more iterations in Bates (and correspondingly, more modeling in the former than the latter). In this conception, analytic narrative cannot mean a narrative that is also analytic but a dual genre in which narratives and analyses cooperate for a common explanatory purpose while keeping their distinct identities. The two components exchange positions—the problems stemming sometimes from one, sometimes from the other, and similarly with the solutions—and influence each other linguistically but are never blurred. What conceptions the other contributors promote is not so explicit. Levi and Rosenthal introduce their technical concepts and hypotheses before proceeding to the narrative, whose foremost function seems to provide empirical evidence to check the hypotheses. Faithful to this hypothesis-testing conception, Levi carefully states the historical facts separately from the explanation they contribute to, but Rosenthal blurs the limits between the two, as if he were after the integrated form that Greif and Bates precisely exclude, i.e., a narrativemade analytic. Exemplifying still another conception,Weingast introduces his hypotheses at the outset, but without technicalities, and his later models serve only to clarify part of them. In a sense, they confirm the narrative rather than the other way round.
IDEAL TYPES AND GAME THEORY From this overview, one can distinguish four ideal-types of analytic narratives: alternation, hybridation, hypothesis-testing, and supplementation. This classification is new to the methodology of analytic narratives and is conceptually unrelated to, and arguably more significant than, the form and intensity of the modeling effort, which are also quite variable in Analytical Narratives. As comparisons across the book show, the formalized model may be solved to variable degrees of detail, depending on its inner complexity and, more subtly, the way it is used. The mathematical demands are not the same if the account is targeted at one or more historical situations and at a few or many selected features of these situations. Also the model may be constructed for the purpose, as in Greif, Rosenthal, and Weingast, or borrowed from the shelf, as in Bates. Levi’s study does not involve a formal modeling stage, and critics like Jon Elster (2000) have complained that such borderline cases were little more than standard narratives. Arguably, only modeling in principle and not actual modeling—this proposed distinction parallels a classic one in the philosophy of explanation—is essential to analytic narratives. In politics, international relations, and military strategy, the new genre was predated by heuristic sketches rather than mathematical applications. Many of these sketches can be filled out, and it would seem arbitrary to keep them outside the door. Some topics have already gone through two stages of technicalities. Thus, the 1914 diplomatic crisis was analyzed strategically first at a semiformal level by Jack Levy (1990/91) and second within a full-fledged model by Frank Zagare (2009). To return to the Analytical Narratives contributors (Bates et al. 1998), their most obvious common ground is perhaps
their involvement with game theory. Granting the plan of subjecting history to some theoretical framework, this one recommended itself to Greif, Levi, Weingast, and Rosenthal, given their chosen cases. Empirical existence can be claimed for the collectives—clans, states, countries, social classes, or interests— they deal with. Furthermore, in the historical circumstances, these collectives could plausibly be endowed with feasible sets of actions, preferences, and strategic calculations. Game theory was perhaps not so appropriate for Rosenthal’s wide-ranging explananda; he can employ it only after lumping together— e.g., in the “elite”—a large number of very different actors. Within game theory, Analytical Narratives claims a special status for extensive forms of perfect information and subgame perfection. Granting that the latter is a powerful equilibrium concept for the former, the two contentious issues are how analytic narrators would solve extensive forms under imperfect information and why they should not sometimes employ normal forms. To see these alternative forms at work, take O. G. Haywood’s (1954) penetrating analysis of World War II (1939–1945) battles in terms of two-person zero-sum games—the first application ever made of a game-theoretic technique to history. The Analytical Narratives contributors make occasional use of social choice theory, and they could have resorted more to decision theory, at least in the basic form of an expected utility apparatus.These two blocks are integral parts of the mathematical corpus of rational choice theory (RCT), so it is appropriate that the debate over analytic narratives has centered on their association with the compound rather than just game theory. Elster (2000) claims that Analytical Narratives fails because the standard already-telling objections to RCT become absolutely irresistible in the contributors’ case. For instance, the problem of checking for the actors’ motivations, given that they are not observed but conjectured from overt behavior, is dramatized by the information lacunae that are the historians’ lot. Bates, Greif, Levi, Rosenthal, and Weingast respond both by defending RCT for lack of better alternatives and arguing that their applications do not worsen its case. Some academics do agree with Bates, Greif, Levi, Rosenthal, and Weingast but would emphasize more than they do the relativity of success and failure. In social sciences generally, RCT has preferential explananda: human actions and their proximate consequences, when the actors are individuals or can be regarded as such, perform some deliberation or calculation, and their desires can be disentangled from their beliefs.The closer its case stands to this ideal point, the more promising the analytic narrative, and conversely, cases that depart on too many dimensions are bound to failure. A paradoxical consequence is that analytic narratives perform well in those areas in which ordinary narratives already do; this is because RCT and ordinary narratives share roughly the same preferential explananda. These are the objective conditions, as it were, and there are others relative to the intellectual context. A convincing analytic narrative needs rooting into traditional history.There should be a problem neglected by the historians, but this problem, once brought to light, should attract them, and their inadequate records should be adequate enough for the solution arrived
Anarchism 51 at analytically to be double-checked. This is a knife’s edge, and there could be few candidates that survive in the end.
CONCLUSION Philippe Mongin’s 2009 analytic narrative of the Waterloo campaign in June 1815 in “A Game-Theoretic Analysis of the Waterloo Campaign and Some Comments on the Analytic Narrative Project” is meant to provide a decently favorable case along these stringent lines. (Campaign narratives and military applications generally appear to be a fertile area for the new genre.) Mongin starts from a gap in the extant narratives: They do not properly explain why Napoleon weakened himself before his decisive battle against Wellington by sending Grouchy’s detachment against Blücher. This failure at answering a major historical question by ordinary means suggests a RCT model. Beside the contextual condition, the objective conditions are met paradigmatically—the explanandum being a single man’s action, taken deliberatively in a limited context of uncertainty to achieve a seemingly transparent objective of victory. Mongin introduces a zero-sum game of incomplete information in normal form. At the unique equilibrium, Napoleon’s strategy consists in dividing his army, sending out Grouchy to prevent Blücher from joining Wellington. Eventually, nature played against Napoleon, and Grouchy messed up the orders, so the ex post failure is compatible with ex ante rationality. This is the claim of the pro-Napoleonic literature but rejuvenated by the technical apparatus. Here, the analytic narrative plays an arbitration role between historians, but elsewhere, it will provide them with new conclusions and, most importantly, new explananda to consider. See also Discourse Analysis; Event History and Duration Modeling; Hierarchical Modeling; Historical Method, Comparative. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PHILIPPE MONGIN BIBLIOGRAPH Y Bates, Robert H., Avner Greif, Margaret Levi, Jean-Laurent Rosenthal, and Barry R. Weingast. Analytic Narratives. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1998. ———. “The Analytic Narrative Project.” American Political Science Review 94 (September 2000): 696–702. Brams, Steven J. Game Theory and Politics. New York, Free Press, 1975. Elster, Jon. “Rational Choice History: A Case of Excessive Ambition.” American Political Science Review 94 (2000): 685–695. Ferejohn, John. “Rationality and Interpretation: Parliamentary Elections in Early Stuart England.” In The Economic Approach to Politics, edited by Kristen R. Monroe, 275–305. New York: Harper Collins, 1991. Gardiner, Patrick L., ed. The Philosophy of History. Oxford: Oxford Unversity Press, 1974. Greif, Avner. Institutions and the Path to Modern Economy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Greif, Avner, and David Laitin. “A Theory of Endogenous Institutional Change.” American. Political Science Review 98, no.4 (2004): 633–652. Haywood, O. G., Jr. “Military Decision and Game Theory.” Journal of the Operations Research Society of America 2, no. 4 (1954): 365–385. Hempel, Carl G. Aspects of Scientific Explanation, and Other Essays in the Philosophy of Science. New York: Free Press, 1965. Levy, Jack S. “Preferences, Constraints, and Choices in July 1914.” International Security 15 (Winter 1990/91): 151–186. Maurer, John H. “The Anglo-German Naval Rivalry and Informal Arms Control, 1912–1914.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 36 (1992): 284–308.
Mongin, Philippe. “A Game-Theoretic Analysis of the Waterloo Campaign and Some Comments on the Analytic Narrative Project.” Les Cahiers de Recherche 915. Jouy-en-Josas, France: HEC School of Management, 2009. Myerson, Roger B. “Political Economics and the Weimar Disaster.” Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics 160 (2004):187– 209. O’Neill, B. “Game Theory Models of War and Peace.” In Handbook of Game Theory II, edited by Robert J. Aumann and Sergiu Hart, 1010–1013. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1994. Roderick, Dani., ed. In Search for Prosperity: Analytic Narratives on Economic Growth. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2003. Zagare, Frank C., “Explaining the 1914 War in Europe: An Analytic Narrative.” Journal of Theoretical Politics 21 (2009): 63–95.
Anarchism The term anarchism comes to us from the Greek anarkhos, defined as “without a ruler.” While seemingly uncomplicated, the question of whether and how societies might live peacefully without a ruler is at the core of anarchist theory and practice.
HISTORICAL ROOTS Until French writer Pierre-Joseph Proudhon embraced them in his 1840 book What Is Property?, the words anarchy and anarchism were pejorative terms for the chaotic and conflictual condition said to result from the absence of a ruler. While Proudhon was the first self-proclaimed anarchist, the political theory of anarchism is conventionally traced back to William Godwin’s Enquiry Concerning Political Justice, published in 1793. Although never using the label, Godwin rejected the artificial and coercive authority of the state in favor of a natural, egalitarian society. Anarchist thought can then be traced through a number of European and American writers of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, including Mikhail Bakunin, Peter Kropotkin, Benjamin Tucker, and Emma Goldman. Anarchism is much more, however, than the creation of these individuals. Kropotkin himself argues that “[a]narchy does not draw its origin from . . . any system of philosophy” but represents one of “two currents of thought and action [that] have been in conflict in . . . [all] human societies . . . from all times there have been Anarchists and Statists” (Horowitz 1964, 145–147).
AN ANARCHIST ORIENTATION Understood in this way, anarchism is less an intellectual tradition than it is a distinctive spirit, or an orientation, defined by antipathy to domination and coercion—especially, but not solely, by the state—and a vision of an alternative free of domination. This understanding casts a wide net, drawing together not only avowed anarchists, but many earlier thinkers, activists, and movements. Various interpreters and historians have characterized Lao Tzu, Aristippus, Zeno, Diogenes, Jesus, and the Anabaptists, for example, as sharing an anarchist orientation. It is also reflected in many literary and cultural works. Perhaps surprisingly, this understanding also expands the scope of contemporary anarchism. While there has been a notable reemergence of self-proclaimed anarchists in recent
52 Anarchy years, the pejorative connotation of anarchy as “chaos” remains influential. As a consequence, many in the alternative globalization, antiwar, indigenous autonomy, radical environmental, and radical feminist movements share an anarchist orientation, yet eschew the label—often describing themselves as antiauthoritarian instead. In contrast to the artificial, coercive power of the state and other institutions that they reject, anarchists counterpoise a more natural and informal basis—Kropotkin calls it “mutual aid”—for social harmony and agreement. Although anarchists characterize this alternative vision in diverse ways, its role is vital. As a consequence, while some who are truly anarchists do not identify themselves using with the label, others who do promote the term are not properly understood as anarchists. Philosopher Robert Paul Wolff ’s widely read In Defense of Anarchism offers a prominent example of this.Wolff unequivocally rejects the legitimacy of the state, arguing that it conflicts with individual moral autonomy, which he takes to be “the fundamental assumption of moral philosophy” (Wolff 1970, 12). Yet Wolff makes no actual defense of anarchism; he offers no sense of how a society might be sustained without the state. As a result, he makes no argument for dismantling or overthrowing states or rulers, despite their avowed illegitimacy.
INDIVIDUAL VERSUS COMMUNITY? If, as Emma Goldman has argued, anarchism stands for both “the sovereignty of the individual” and “social harmony,” anarchists both past and present can be differentiated by their relative emphasis on the individual or community. Often this reflects differences in their views of property and capitalist economic organization. At one end of the spectrum, individualist anarchists regard private property as the basis for a noncoercive society. At the other, anarchist communists reject capitalism and private property as a central form of domination in modern society. Other differences exist. While the historical preoccupation of anarchism has been the abolition of state rule, many contemporary anarchists have sought to expand the rejection of “rule” to hierarchies of race, gender, and species.
ANARCHISM’S INFLUENCE AND RELEVANCE The legacy and contemporary relevance of anarchism depends on the viewpoint from which it is assessed. As a comprehensive theory and revolutionary movement, anarchism can be understood literally as utopian—it exists nowhere—and has been unsuccessful in reconstructing any large-scale society in its image. Moreover, such an anarchist theory relies on a dichotomy: On one side is the coercive power of the state and other rejected forms of rule; on the other are social sanctions and other informal sources of power acceptable with a liberated society. Yet theorists from Alexis de Tocqueville and John Stuart Mill to Michel Foucault have argued that the latter can be at least as domineering as the former. If so, both normative and empirical bases for such a dichotomy become questionable. By contrast, the influence of an anarchist orientation has been widespread. Bakunin and other nineteenth-century
anarchists offered a remarkably prescient critique of the perils of the proletarian state envisioned by Marx. During the twentieth century, anarchists have been a fount of energy and inspiration to labor organizing and the creation of cooperative institutions, to resistance during the Spanish Civil War (1936– 1939), and to education reform movements. In recent decades, as Uri Gordon has argued, an anarchist orientation has been central to many grassroots political movements, opposing domination in a wide variety of forms. It also has promoted an ethos of direct action rather than attempting to influence policy makers and other institutional actors. Rather than condemning anarchism to the dustbin of history, the inability to truly liberate society has continued to nurture anarchists’ critical and reconstructive vision. In this sense, paraphrasing Kropotkin, there will always be anarchists. See also Anarchy; Authority; Bakunin, Mikhail; Goldman, Emma; Kropotkin, Peter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JOHN M. MEYER BIBLIOGRAPHY Carter, April. The Political Theory of Anarchism. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1971. Godwin, William. 1793. Enquiry Concerning Political Justice. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971. Goldman, Emma. Anarchism and Other Essays, 3rd rev. ed. New York: Mother Earth, 1917, http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/Goldman/Writings/Anarchism/ anarchism.html. Gordon, Uri. Anarchy Alive! Anti-authoritarian Politics from Practice to Theory. London: Pluto, 2008. Horowitz, Irving Louis, ed. The Anarchists. New York: Dell, 1964. Kropotkin, Peter. Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution, edited and with an introduction by Paul Avrich. London: Penguin, 1972. Marx, Karl. “After the Revolution: Marx Debates Bakunin.” In The MarxEngels Reader, 2nd ed., edited by Robert C. Tucker, 542–548. New York: Norton, 1978. Miller, David. Anarchism. London: J.M. Dent, 1984. Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph. 1840. What Is Property? Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. Sheehan, Sean M. Anarchism. London: Reaktion, 2003. Wolff, Robert Paul. In Defense of Anarchism. New York: Harper Colophon, 1970. Woodcock, George. Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements. New York: World Publishing, 1962.
Anarchy The term anarchy derives from ancient Greek where it originally meant “absence of a leader.” In current usage we can distinguish between two main meanings: anarchy in the strict sense means absence of a chief or a government, while in the broader sense it denotes a condition of disorder and chaos.
THE DEFINITION: ABSENCE OF GOVERNMENT OR DISORDER? Although the two meanings of the term anarchy are often intermingled in common language, it is important to distinguish between them at the conceptual level. In technical usage, it would be better to limit the usage to the strict meaning. While the term anarchy in the sense of disorder is
Anarchy 53 superfluous (other possible words for it being chaos, mess, and disarray), the strict meaning is necessary because we otherwise lack a single word to denote the third possibility between the existence of a government and pure chaos. In other words, anarchy is needed to denote the fact that order is possible even in absence of an orderer. This definition has three main corollaries. First, most scholars agree that anarchy does not mean lack of organization, although disputes may arise as to the degree of centralization that is compatible with anarchy (e.g., for some a noncoercive form of government is compatible with anarchy). This is very clear in primitive acephalous (literally, “headless”) societies and in the case of the society of sovereign states: In both cases, we have anarchical societies that display a high degree of organization even in the absence of a common government. Second, anarchy does not only mean absence of the state. Anarchy means absence of coercive and centralized governments, of which the state is only one of the possible forms (other examples being empires or hierarchically ordered tribes). The reason why anarchy came to mean hostility to the state is that, since its rise, the modern sovereign state appeared as the culminating point of political life, the alternative to it being anarchy. This is clear in social contract theories that counterpoise the civil society to a hypothetical anarchical state of nature, thus supporting the passage from the denotation of absence of government to its frequent connotation of disorder. Such an opposition is however more a normative and therefore disputable model of social order than a description of the actual origins of the state. Third, anarchy is both a descriptive and a prescriptive concept. In the first sense, it denotes a state of things, such as the condition of the acephalous societies mentioned above, while, in the second, it means an ideal that must be pursued. The anarchic ideal is characterized by the central emphasis it puts on the concept of freedom, so much so that some have claimed that this word summarizes the sense of the entire anarchic doctrine.
FORMS OF ANARCHY: THE ANARCHIC IDEAL Although the anarchic ideal is recurrent in different cultures and epochs, it is in the nineteenth and twentieth century when a number of revolutionary movements emerged in many Western countries that Western anarchism as a distinct political doctrine emerged. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon is usually recognized as the first to have defined himself as an anarchist, which led many to consider him the father of modern anarchism. Anarchists are united by their refusal of coercive forms of authority, be they political or religious, and their plea for voluntary and spontaneous forms of organizations that follow a bottom-up logic. Yet, many different and variegated forms of anarchism exist, and they can be grouped according to the different ends and means of their political proposals.With regards to the ends, there is a broad distinction between individualist
and social approaches.The usual example of a strict individualist credo is the theory of the German philosopher Max Stirner, who argued that freedom can have no other principle and end than the self and its egoism. Individualist anarchism developed mainly in the United States, where anarchism has often been coupled with the free market (an example being the so-called anarcho-capitalism). On the opposite side stand those approaches that see the realization of the self as possible only within and through the society. Distinct approaches among these are communists, such as the Russian Peter Kropotkin, and collectivists, such as Michael Bakunin, who favored a form of communism of production but recognized some space for the individual enjoyment of the fruits of labor. Behind the different forms of anarchism stand radically different conceptions of freedom: The idea that freedom is to be realized individually (Stirner) or that it can only be achieved in common because, as Bakunin observed, one cannot be free in a society of slaves because their slavery prevents the full realization of one’s own freedom. With regards to the means through which anarchy is to be realized, most anarchists agree that they must be homogenous to the ends: If the aim is freedom, it can only be realized through free means. Differences emerge as to the way in which they must be conceived: (1) Some favored forms of rebellion or revolution, (2) others valued more nonviolent means such as education, while (3) others, taking an intermediate route, looked for an alliance with workers’ organizations such as trade unions, which can both educate the masses and provide the infrastructures for the reorganization of society (see in particular the French and Spanish anarcho-syndicalism). Among the first, there must be a further distinction between those who trust the spontaneity of revolution and others who believe in the “propaganda by the deeds”; that is, either local rebellions that could stimulate masses elsewhere toward a general revolution or single individual acts of violence, like assassination of political leaders. While the recourse to violence is very much controversial among anarchists, most of them agree on the importance of education for the creation of an anarchical society. Among those who emphasized education are antiviolence writers such as the Russian Leo Tolstoy or contemporary pacifist and ecological movements. In the decades surrounding the turn of the twenty-first century, political and technological transformations have lead to a resurgence of interest in anarchism. On the one hand, the decline in popularity of Marxism in the 1990s created a sort of vacuum in the radical left. This is linked also to the fact that the collapse of the Soviet Union showed that the anarchists were right in their critique of Marxists: a workers’ state cannot but reproduce the same logic of every state, where a minority of state bureaucrats rule over the majority of people. Nevertheless, the main reason for the resurgence of interest in anarchism is linked to the technological developments of the past few decades, which are usually referred to as globalization. The rise of network forms of social, economic, and political organizations, in particular through the World Wide Web and
54 Anglophone Africa associated technologies, have somehow proved what modern political theory has always been reluctant to recognize: order is possible without an orderer. See also Anarchism; Authority; Freedom; Social Contract; Tyranny, Classical. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHIARA BOTTICI BIBLIOGRAPH Y Bakunin, Mikhail. Bakunin on Anarchy: Selected Works by the Activist-Founder of World Anarchism. New York:Vintage, 1972. Bull, Hedley. The Anarchical Society: A Study of Order in World Politics. London: Macmillan, 1977. Call, Lewis. Postmodern Anarchism. Lanham, Md.: Lexington, 2002. Crowder, George. Classical Anarchism:The Political Thought of Godwin, Proudhon, Bakunin, and Kropotkin. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992. Day, Richard J. F. Gramsci Is Dead: Anarchist Currents in the Newest Social Movements. London: Pluto, 2005. Guérin, Daniel. Ni dieu, ni Maître. Anthologie de l’anarchisme. Paris: La Decouverte, 1999. Kropotkin, Pyotr. The Essential Kropotkin. London: Macmillan, 1976. Malatesta, Errico. Errico Malatesta: His Life and Ideas. London: Freedom, 1965. Miller, David. Anarchism. London: Dent, 1984. Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph. What Is Property? Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1994. Stirner, Max. The Ego and Its Own. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
Anglophone Africa Anglophone Africa refers primarily to sub-Sahara African states colonized by the British Empire in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. English is the most widely spoken language in independent Africa, and twenty of Africa’s fiftythree countries use English as their official lingua franca. With the exceptions of South Africa (1700s–1910—dates for colonization) and the island nation of Mauritius (1810–1968), the British colonies scattered on the Western Coast of Africa are the earliest: the Gambia (1664–1965), Sierra Leone (1787–1961), and Nigeria (1861–1960), the largest country by population in Africa, along with Ghana (1874–1957). Lesotho, entirely landlocked within South Africa, was also an earlier colony (1867–1966). The later wave of colonization, following the Berlin Conference of 1885 (also referred to as the “Scramble for Africa”), includes the southern countries of Botswana (1885–1966), Zimbabwe (1890–1980), Malawi (1891–1964), Zambia (1891– 1964), and Swaziland (1902–1968). The largest countries by population, besides Nigeria, are all in east Africa: Kenya (1885– 1963), Uganda (1885–1965), and Tanzania (1918–1964), while the largest by land area is the Sudan (1899–1956). Of these sixteen countries, only Tanzania, the Sudan, and Zimbabwae are not among the member states of the British Commonwealth. Other countries may be included in Anglophone Africa either due to their use of English or their colonial heritage. Liberia is an English-speaking African country that was not colonized by the British but was purchased by the American colonization society to act as a homeland for freed African American slaves.The northern portion of Somalia (though not
internationally recognized as the Republic of Somaliland) was colonized by the British from 1884 to 1960. Egypt is also a formerly British-colonized African country but is Arabic-speaking. Namibia is an English-speaking, formerly German-colonized country; Cameroon is a Francophone African country whose Northeastern region uses English as its lingua franca due to joint British colonial administration with Nigeria (1916–1961). Both Cameroon and Namibia belong to the present-day Commonwealth, as do English-speaking Sierra Leone and Rwanda.
DECOLONIZATION AND QUICK DEMOCRATIC REVERSAL During the decolonization period (primarily the 1960s), Britain created local government councils and national legislative council institutions in its former colonies to use as vehicles for influencing the eventual shape of the independent democratic governments. Established as liberal democracies at independence, most countries reformed the British Westminster parliamentary system to evolve presidential hybrid systems. Since the early 1970s, with the exception of Botswana, the Gambia, and Mauritius, Anglophone Africa’s liberal democracies have suffered democratic reversals, beginning with the constriction of multiparty regimes into one-party states and continuing with the ousting of democratic governments by military regimes. Examples include, •• Tanzania: The leadership of the first prime minister, Julius Nyerere, paved the way for the 1965 referendum that transitioned the Westminster parliamentary system into the self-styled, Ujaama one-party “democracy.” •• Kenya: By 1966, federalism was discontinued and transformed into a one-party regime by the first majority party, the Kenyan African Nationalist Union (KANU). •• Nigeria: A tripartite federalist, Westminster parliamentary regime was ousted by a military coup in 1966 after just seven years, despite the notable leadership of its first president, Nnamdi Azikiwe; first prime minister, Sir Tafewa Balewa; and western region premier, Obafemi Awolowo. •• Ghana: One of the continent’s first independent democracies in 1957, its liberal democratic regime was ousted in a coup in 1968 after a metamorphosis toward one-party socialism under the the pan-Africanist leadership of West Africa’s first independence nationalist, Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, and his populist Congress Peoples Party (CPP). •• The Sudan: A Westminster parliamentary regime from 1956 until 1969 gave way to the single-party military regime of Jafar Numeiri (1969–1985) due to war, instability, and the dominance of the northern Muslim Sudanese to the exclusion of the non-Muslim South. •• Uganda: A democratic regime led by President Milton Obote was overthrown in a 1971 coup by General Idi Amin.
THIRD WAVE OF DEMOCRATIZATION By the end of the cold war in the 1990s, what political scientist Samuel Huntington has called the “Third
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The term “Anglophone Africa” refers to English-speaking African nations influenced by British colonialism.
56 Animal Rights Wave of Democratization” spread to Anglophone Africa. Zambia’s 1990–1991 prodemocracy Movement for Multiparty Democracy (MMD) in 1991 was first to reestablish democracy through the leadership of former union leader Fredrick Chiluba, who replaced Kenneth Kaunda’s UNIP one-party regime. Kenya formally restored multiparty elections in 1992 under President Daniel Arap Moi, but only in 2001 did the National Rainbow Coalition (NARC) finally oust KANU regime dominance and usher in a genuine democratic transition. Nigeria underwent a redemocratization period between 1979 and 1983, and another in 1993, but did not truly reachieve democracy until its 1999 military-led elections that resulted in its fourth republic, the Obasanjo regime. In the midst of these transitions, the Gambia underwent a military coup in 1994, but soon reestablished multiparty elections in 1997. South Africa’s transition to democracy was significant in both African and world politics. The country’s 1948 establishment of a multiparty democracy for white settlers led by National Party (NP) dominance and the establishment of formal white minority rule was not truly a democracy, as it excluded most of the nation’s population. Although the African National Congress (ANC) was founded in 1912 to embark upon (black) majority rule, only in 1990, under the new leadership of President F. W De Klerk, did a pact between the NP and the ANC’s Nelson Mandela result in the first full-suffrage election. The 1994 election was an ANC electoral victory, installing Nelson Mandela as the first black African president, and completing South Africa’s democratic transition.
These are all characteristics of the substantive democratic deepening among these countries. Several of Africa’s largest Anglophone countries remain only partially free, including Nigeria, Kenya, and Tanzania, whose large, multiethnic, complexly forged socioeconomic contexts foster certain limitations in fully consolidating liberal democracy. The Sudan and Zimbabwe, on the other hand, are infamously known for their “not-free” statuses with the worst political rights and civil liberty regimes on the African continent. Sudan ended its thirty-year war with the nonMuslim south in a bifederal unity government in 2004, but then emerged the Darfur crisis, during which the Sudanese militarized regime (National Islamic Front—NIF) chose a military option to subvert the Darfuran militant resistance. The effect on Sudanese democracy of an April 2009 ICC indictment of President Omar Bashir for human rights abuses against Sudanese citizens remains to be seen. Zimbabwe also is considered a not-free democracy due to party dominance and the exclusion of opposition by President Robert Mugabe’s Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) regime. A February 2009 government of national unity coalition between ZANU and the opposition party Movement for Democratic Change (MDC), led by Prime Minister Morgan Tzviringirai, held promise and hope for the consolidation of democracy in Zimbabwe.
LEVELS OF DEMOCRACY IN ANGLOPHONE AFRICA
BIBLIOGRAPHY Edie, Carelene. Politics in Africa: A New Beginning. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 2003. Edozie, Rita Kiki. Reconstructing the Third Wave of Democracy: Comparative African Democratic Politics. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 2008. Freedom House, “Freedom in the World: Country Report,” 2009, www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=1.
Only a few Anglophone African countries are classified as free democracies with the highest political rights and civil liberties. These countries have established liberal democratic institutions and play more than nominal reference to human rights. The domains of power reserved for the military or other actors not accountable to the electorate are absent, and government systems in these democracies have achieved both vertical and horizontal accountability that constrain executive power and protect constitutionality, legality, and the democratic process. The regimes extend provisions for political and civic pluralism, as well as individual and group freedoms, as individuals are able to frequently exercise their rights to citizenship in obtaining unfettered and just access to the democratic system. Examples include, •• Botswana’s Botswana Democratic Party’s (BDP) continuous democracy •• Ghana’s recent turnover electoral victory by President Attah-Mills’s National Democratic Coalition (NDC) party •• South Africa’s 1994 liberal democratic constitution (CODESA) that extends rights to gays and lesbians •• Mauritius’s ethnically plural consensus democracy •• Lesotho’s experiments in proportional representation to extend voting rights more fully to minorities,
See also Democracy and Democratization; Francophone Africa; Lusophone Africa; Postindependent Africa, Politics and Governance in. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RITA KIKI EDOZIE
Animal Rights The idea that animals have rights develops almost solely within Western intellectual traditions. Vegetarianism based on respect for animals in non-Western cultures was almost always based on religious asceticism. Philosophical vegetarianism seems first to have appeared in classical Greek thought with the quasi-theological work of Pythagoras and the neo-Platonists, Plutarch, and Porphyry. Throughout ancient antiquity and the Middle Ages, however, Western philosophy and theology, under the influence of Aristotle and the Bible, assumed that animals existed for the convenience of humanity. Although heretical sects like the Jewish Christians in the early church and several Manichean movements in late antiquity and the Middle Ages were vegetarian, they sought purification of the human soul rather than the welfare of animals. The Protestant Reformation gave greater recognition to the earthly suffering and future resurrection of animals, especially in the more radical sects, which were particularly strong in
Anthony, Susan Brownell 57 England. This new sensitivity to animals, along with Enlightenment humanitarianism and Romantic naturalism, prepared the animal welfare movements of the nineteenth century. Bernard Mandeville, Frances Hutcheson, David Hume, Jean Jacques Rousseau, and other figures of the Enlightenment advanced the ideas of compassion and sympathy that brought them close to animal rights. Indeed English philosopher Jeremy Bentham, counting only aggregates of pain and pleasure, famously said “. . . the question is not, Can they reason?, nor Can they talk? But, Can they suffer?” But like all the major writers of this period, Bentham the radical was too much a prisoner of deeply embedded custom and tradition to carry thoughts like this through to a logical conclusion (i.e., principled vegetarianism). In the nineteenth century, some transcendentalists such as Henry David Thoreau moved to principled vegetarianism and a more general respect for animals and nature. The modern theory of animal rights, as well as the movement to secure them, really begins with the 1975 publication of Animal Liberation by Peter Singer. Singer, himself a utilitarian, systematically worked out the full implications of Bentham’s thought on animals: If every sentient individual is to count as one, then the suffering of a nonhuman animal counts no less than that of a human. The interests of animals must thus be accorded equal respect. Not to do so is specieism, a term that Singer popularized, holding that the modern movement for liberation focused until then on racism and sexism should extend also to the liberation of animals from specieism. Singer reviewed at length the horrors of factory farming and the torments of animals in biomedical research, all but a tiny fraction of which he showed to be pointless, repetitious, or misleading. For factory farming, Singer’s remedy is vegetarianism. For the evils of research, limit animal testing to what is truly urgent. His test for urgency is whether the experimenters would be willing to take human infants of six months or younger and mentally defective adults as the subjects of their experiments. Such entities, Singer holds, have no more preference for life than animals. The great alternative to Singer and utilitarianism is the rights approach, the classic text for which is Tom Regan’s The Case for Animal Rights (1983). Regan begins by observing that no responsible thinker has ever held that we may treat animals in any way we please and then elaborates on the full meaning of that common intuition. He dismisses as inadequate the idea that cruelty is to be ruled out merely because of its alleged “indirect effect” in hardening human hearts in their treatment of each other. Utilitarianism is excluded also because it treats individual sentient beings as mere receptacles for units of utility, which may then be abstracted and aggregated and can thus sacrifice justice to individuals to maximize an aggregate. Respect for animals as individuals requires taking each subject-of-a-life as a locus of “inherent value” or subjectivity and recognizing that this inherent value is equal for every subject-of-a-life. This rights approach goes beyond Singer’s utilitarianism in admitting no exceptions to vegetarianism and condemning all experimentation on animals as inherently wrong and unnecessary in the long run. Although Regan confines full subjectivity to mammals of a year or more in age, he
admits that the circle of rights may be extended, and other theorists have done so. More recently Christine M. Korsgaard has argued that humans cannot value their own sensible nature without valuing that of animals as well. Julian H. Franklin has deepened the foundations of the rights position by showing that Kant’s categorical imperative logically includes all sentient beings among its beneficiaries, not only humans, even though rational beings alone are subject to its obligations. See also Children’s Rights; Enlightenment Political Thought; Kant, Immanuel; Utilitarianism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JULIAN H. FRANKLIN BIBLIOGRAPHY Franklin, Julian H. Animal Rights and Moral Philosophy. New York: Columbia University Press, 2005. Korsgaard, Christine M. The Sources of Normativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Regan, Tom. The Case for Animal Rights. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983. Singer, Peter. Animal Liberation. New York: HarperCollins, 1975.
Annexation See Occupation and Annexation.
Anthems, National See National Anthems.
Anthony, Susan Brownell American political reformer and “Napoleon of the women’s rights movement,” Susan B. Anthony (1820–1906) was born in Massachusetts. Over the course of a sixty-year career as a reformer, Anthony traveled an average of thirteen thousand miles (twenty-one thousand kilometers) a year to garner support for women’s causes. Her reformist nature was nurtured from an early age by her activist Baptist mother and her abolitionist father, a liberal Quaker who had been run out of the local meeting house for allowing young people to hold dancing lessons in his attic. At age fifteen, Anthony began teaching in her father’s school during summer breaks.The part-time job turned into a full-time profession three years later when her father became impoverished during a financial recession. In 1848, Anthony’s career as a reformer was launched when she joined the local chapter of the Daughters of Temperance. She also became an ardent abolitionist, expressing her support for the controversial John Brown. She did not, however, take part in the first women’s rights convention held in Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848 under the leadership of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott. Although her interest in women’s rights was ignited after her parents and sister returned from Seneca Falls, it was not until reformer Amelia Bloomer introduced her to suffragists Stanton and Lucy Stone in 1851 that Anthony became actively involved in the fledgling movement.
58 Anti- and Alter-globalization Movements Anthony and Stanton became lifelong friends and colleagues, actively lobbying for women’s suffrage, abolition, and equal rights for women and African Americans, often under the auspices of the American Equal Rights Association, which they cofounded. To promote their views, they published the radical newspaper, The Revolution, from 1868 to 1870. The women’s movement split amid the furor over the Fifteenth Amendment, ratified in 1870, which guaranteed suffrage to black men but not to women. Anthony and Stanton formed the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) in 1869.The breech among the women’s groups was healed over the next two decades. In 1890, NWSA merged with the American Woman Suffrage Association, which under the leadership of Lucy Stone had supported the Fifteenth Amendment, to create the National American Woman’s Suffrage Association. It was not until the 1960s that the women’s movement and civil rights movement again supported one another’s struggle for equal rights. Anthony wrote a number of articles and speeches, most notably The True Woman (1859) and the Declaration of the Rights of Woman (1876) with Stanton and Matilda Jocelyn Gage. Anthony’s most significant work was her contribution to the multiauthored six-volume History of Woman’s Suffrage published between 1881 and 1922. In 1896, with Anthony’s consent, Husted Harper authored a two-volume biography of her; a third volume was published after Anthony’s death. In 1872, Anthony challenged the ban on female suffrage by voting illegally. She was arrested and convicted. The decadeslong collaboration of Anthony and Stanton culminated in 1920 when the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment, known familiarly as the Susan B. Anthony Amendment, gave white women the right to vote. Neither woman lived to experience the success that had taken seventy-two years to accomplish. See also Women’s Rights;Women’s Suffrage. . . . . . . . . . . . . ELIZABETH RHOLETTER PURDY BIBLIOGRAPH Y DuBois, Ellen Carol, ed. The Elizabeth Cady Stanton–Susan B. Anthony Reader: Correspondence,Writings, Speeches. Boston: Northwestern University Press, 1992. Harper, Ida Husted. Life and Work of Susan B. Anthony. Reprint of 1898–1908 eds. New York: Arno, 1969. Harper, Judith E. Susan B. Anthony: A Biographical Companion. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, 1998. Sherr, Lynn. Failure Is Impossible: Susan B. Anthony in Her Own Words. New York: Times Books, 1995. Ward, Geoffrey C. Not for Ourselves Alone:The Story of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony. New York: Knopf, 1999.
Anti- and Alter-globalization Movements The anti-globalization movement is a social movement that opposes neoliberal corporate-led globalization as advanced by corporations, neoclassical economists, and key global institutions such as the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the World Trade Organization (WTO). The movement asserts that the current form of globalization, which is
based on economic integration through trade, investment, and financial flows, is not beneficial to the majority of the world’s population nor to the environment. Its goal is to ensure that globalization’s burden does not fall on workers, communities, the environment, women, and other more marginalized sectors of society. This movement is part of what is known as new social movements. That is, movements that are cross-class—advocate a myriad of issues rather than being one-issue specific—and transnational in terms of demands, focus, and even organizational forms. This cross-borders movement first came to light and became known by the term anti-globalization movement after staging mass demonstrations in Seattle, Washington, in 1999. However, some scholars argue that the roots of this kind of cross-border citizens’ activism against global economic trends can be found decades if not centuries earlier during European colonialism and antislavery movements. According to these scholars, there are several hundred years of movements that, with varying degrees of success, made international linkages on specific issues related to cross-borders economic integration. The alter-globalization movement, which is a less-known term sometimes used interchangeably with anti-globalization to delineate the same thing, has a lot of commonalities with the latter. That is, both anti- and alter-globalization movements emphasize a shared conception of neoliberalism as a global project harmful to the majority of the world population and the environment. The terms were coined to distinguish a current of thought and activism that is not opposed to globalization as a multidimensional and often inevitable process linking people together; rather, it is to emphasize the need for a different form of globalization whereby this process and its different composites of telecommunication leaps, global governance, and economic logic work for the benefit of the majority of the world’s population and not a minority of corporations. Many of the activists and groups involved in this movement are not necessarily against capitalism, rather they want to use to use it in a way that can enhance prosperity with better distribution of resources and opportunities. Initiatives such as fair trade, corporate codes of conduct, flexible migration laws, and free use of the Internet are examples of what this movement and its different groups work on. For the contemporary anti-globalization and alter-globalization movements, three episodes have been seminal to putting it center stage within living-room discussions as much as academic and policy-making debates: the Seattle protests of 1999, the Genoa protests of 2001, and the antiwar demonstrations in 2003 in multiple cities. While other demonstrations targeting neoliberal global policies were organized earlier—during World Bank and IMF meetings (including Berlin in 1988 and Madrid in 1994)—and later (Washington, D.C., in 2000, G8 meetings in different European cities early in the new millennium), these three episodes were the largest and most confrontational. They stirred academic debate about the limitation of the nation-state both as an actor and as a target for contention, and the impact and potential of global civil society and transnational activism and movements.The movement adopted a discourse of unified neoliberalism as a master frame, and accordingly devised and
Anticlericalism 59 included a cultural framing process that universalizes its shortcomings and alternatives to the movement itself.
ORGANIZATIONAL FORMS Not only has the anti-globalization movement ushered in new concepts and cultural frames, but it also emphasized new forms of organization. Observers such as Carlos Azambuja (2003) describe the movement as: . . . [dis]organization that has no hierarchical structure or operational center, consisting of just “us,” in whose interventions thousands of organizations come together horizontally to protest, in one way or another, the current world order. They can grow infinitely without anyone having to give up his individuality to any hierarchical structure. (1) The movement has been conceptualized as a network. A network in this analysis is a wider concept that potentially includes social movements but also nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), professional unions, and the media. Networks make great use of information technology and are characterized by alliances forged between groups with disparate political and ideological affiliations, and by the great diversity in the backgrounds of their members. These loose horizontal forms of organization, the cross-class nature of the movement (intellectuals, students, workers, professionals), along with the diverse ideological leanings of participants and their demands (environmentalists, feminists, Marxists, anarchists, liberal-humanists) put it within the category of new social movements. Using changes in technology, innovative protest styles, information politics, and analytical advances, this movement created debates about the changing nature of contentious politics in the new millennium. The debates ranged from a post–nation-state era to global policing and the demise of political parties.
For instance, the WSF was a rallying point for worldwide dissent against the U.S. invasion of Iraq, with protests held in different cities on February 15, 2003. Hence, what came to be called the antiwar movement since 2003 is in fact an extension of the anti-globalization movement in terms of participants, tactics, and aspired universality. Thus, the emergence of antiwar movement, which was the biggest campaign and most successful mobilization attempt (in terms of size at least) of the anti-globalization movement, has marked the retreat of the latter. See also Contentious Politics; Globalization; Globalization and Development; Modernization; Protests and Demonstrations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RABAB EL-MAHDI BIBLIOGRAPHY Azambuja, Carlos I. S. “The New Face of the Anti-globalization Movements,” 2003, www.cubdest.org/0312/cazambuje.html. Ayres, Jeffery. “Framing Collective Action Against Neoliberalism: The Case of the ‘Anti-globalization’ Movement.” Journal of World-Systems Research (Winter 2004): 11–34. Broad, R., ed. Global Backlash: Citizen Initiatives for a Just World Economy. Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2002. Cavanagh, John, Jerry Mander, Sarah Anderson, Debi Barker, and Maud Barlow. Alternatives to Economic Globalization: A Better World Is Possible. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler, 2002. della Porta, Donatella, and Sidney Tarrow. “After Genoa and New York: The Anti-global Movement, the Police, and Terrorism.” Items and Issues: Social Science Research Council (Winter, 2001): 9–11. Edelman, Marc. “Social Movements: Changing Paradigms and Forms of Politics.” Annual Review of Anthropology 30 (2001): 285–317. Keck, Margret, and Kathryn Sikkink. Activists beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics. New York: Cornell University Press, 1998. Khagram, Sanjee, James Riker, and Kathryn Sikkink, eds. Restructuring World Politics:Transnational Social Movements, Networks, and Norms. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002.
IMPACT
Anticlericalism
The anti-globalization movement marked a growing space for extraparliamentary politics and the rising number and diversified tactics of different movements that could be adopted and adapted by others, including the range of alliances, organizational forms, and framing dissent. The movement also gave rise to transnational or global civil society forums pioneered in the World Social Forum (WSF). The first WSF, held in 2001, convened in Porto Alegre, Brazil, with the intention to provide a counterevent to the World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland. Since then the social forums have been replicated on a regional level (European and Asian Social Forums). The forum is held under the slogan “Another World Is Possible,” which summarizes the common outlook of the various participants advocating alternatives for the neoliberal model on different issues. The WSF, which is attended by individual activists, social movement representatives, NGOs, and some leftist political parties, is meant to serve as a global rally against corporateled globalization and a meeting point where delegates can exchange experiences and coordinate and plan campaigns.
Anticlericalism is an attribute of a political movement or ideology that refers to animosity or opposition to the established religious leadership, often associated with broad disapproval of the public role of religion. While secularism describes the dissociation of religion and public life, anticlericalism seeks the deliberate limitation and reversal of the influence of religious leaders through legal and behavioral constraints. Anticlericalism was a foundational premise of many of the revolutionary movements from the Protestant Reformation of the 1500s to the Iranian White Revolution of the 1960s and continuing in various forms to the present day. Anticlericalism arose originally in European politics in response to the power of the Roman Catholic papacy and clergy in the Middle Ages. The Reformation challenged the power of the Roman Catholic Church as the sole interpreter of doctrine and practice, and it led parts of northern Europe to break with the church, sparking almost a century of warfare. For example, Martin Luther’s major works beginning in 1520 directly challenged the authority and sanctity of the Roman Catholic priesthood and the papacy. As a result, the Peace of
60 Anti-democratic Thought Westphalia of 1648 committed the nations of Europe to refrain from attempting to enforce Roman Catholic orthodoxy and, more generally, introduced the principle of cuius regio, eius religio, under which the religion of the leader was made the religion of the people. Nevertheless, the Roman Catholic Church remained a powerful force in Europe and colonial areas up to the modern age. In countries such as France, Italy, and Spain that had resisted the Reformation, the clergy was commonly associated with conservative and monarchical power, while radical and leftist forces typically espoused anticlerical attitudes as a form of opposition to the dominant classes. Enlightenment Europe brought many new anticlerical forces to power. The Jacobin movement that inspired the French Revolution (1789–1799) was ardently opposed to the established power of the church in addition to its opposition to aristocracy and monarchy. Acts of the revolutionary National Assembly up to and including the 1790 Civil Constitution of the Clergy led to the confiscation of church property and dissolved religious orders. Anticlericalism was equally a force in colonial resistance movements. For example, a persistent theme of Mexican politics has been the limitation of the power of the Roman Catholic clergy through deliberate anticlerical policies, such as article 27 of the 1917 Mexican constitution (since amended), which forbid the church from owning property. Early postcolonial constitutions specifically laid out restraints on the church, and church properties were held by the revolutionary governments with a view toward redistribution of these assets. The totalitarian movements of the 1930s brooked no dissent from any societal force and the religious establishment was no exception. Marx’s famous dictum that “religion is the opiate of the masses” inspired an antagonism toward religious authorities in most all communist states from the Soviet Union to Cuba. Fascist movements in Italy and Germany in the 1930s were more ambiguously anticlerical, combining a vague tolerance of religion with a desire to subordinate and persecute clergy should they present a strong philosophical challenge to chauvinistic nationalism. In non-Christian contexts, movements of both the left and the right have likewise pursued an anticlerical bent, from Maoist suppression of the Buddhist religion in China to the enforced secularism in Kemalist Turkey and Iran under Muhammad Reza Shah. Anticlericalism remains a part of many modern and secularizing political movements and has had an important influence on many feminist and structuralist analyses. For example, leading feminist theologian Rosemary Radford Ruether has criticized traditional religion and the hierarchy of the Roman Catholic Church and the Vatican. Likewise in critical texts on colonialism such as that of Frantz Fanon’s The Wretched of the Earth, organized religion is castigated for its role in perpetuating relationships of dominance. The resurgence of religion as a militant force, beginning in the 1990s and demonstrated in the attacks of September 11, 2001, in the United States, also has led many to argue that it is inherently regressive and should be subordinated to liberal norms.
See also Reformation Political Thought; Religion and Politics; Roman Catholic Social Thought; Secularism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PAUL S. ROWE BIBLIOGRAPHY Barnett, S. J. Idol Temples and Crafty Priests:The Origins of Enlightenment Anticlericalism. New York: St. Martin’s, 1999. Burleigh, Michael. Sacred Causes:The Clash of Religion and Politics, from the Great War to the War on Terror. New York: Harper Collins, 2007. Dykema, Peter A., and Heiko A. Oberman, eds. Anticlericalism in Late Medieval and Early Modern Europe. Leiden, Netherlands: E.J. Brill, 1993. Fanon, Frantz. The Wretched of the Earth. Translated by Richard Philcox. New York: Grove, 2004. Sanchez, Jose. Anticlericalism: A Brief History. Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1972.
Anti-democratic Thought The term democracy originated in classical Athens and combines the ancient Greek words demos, meaning “the people,” and kratein, meaning “to rule.” From that time, anti-democratic arguments have taken a variety of forms, though some commentators (e.g., Dahl 1989) maintain that all of them are reducible to knowledge claims, or the “idea of guardianship,” according to which one person or group of people knows better than the rest how to maximize the interests of the community. This seems a rather simplistic way to characterize anti-democratic thought. A more subtle approach is to make use of the analytical categories developed by A. O. Hirschman in his study of “reactionary” thought (1991): perversity, futility, and jeopardy.
HISTORY In classical Athens, where democracy originated, “the people” of necessity encompassed the poor and uneducated, and democracy was often identified with the rule of the mob or the rabble. Both Plato and Aristotle held it in contempt as a degenerate form of governance, subordinating reason to passion, polarizing rich and poor, and generating both instability and imprudence. Instead, Aristotle and other writers extolled the virtues of a “mixed constitution,” in which rule by the many is balanced in some formal way by the influence of the wealthy and literate minority. This was the model of government that emerged from the ancient world, one where popular power was restricted by mutual checks and the rule of law. The word democracy fell into disuse, except as a synonym for internal dissension and majority tyranny. Even the framers of the American constitution drew a distinction between a democracy, which they feared, and a republic, another name for the “mixed” or “balanced” regime they favored. The present vogue for democracy really dates from the French Revolution (1789–1799), whose more radical protagonists appealed to “the people” as an undiluted source of power. Democracy soon lost its toxic connotations and came to be associated with the classical republican tradition that had long challenged the monarchical institutions of Europe. In its new incarnation, democracy could no longer be dismissed as mob rule. It was now seen to include representative parliaments, the separation of powers, the rule of law, and civil
Anti-democratic Thought 61 rights. Gradually, the idea of democracy became a dominant standard by which regimes were judged. But, despite the supposed taming of the democratic beast, the rehabilitation of democracy led to the revival of anti-democratic thought.
PERVERSITY THESIS The perversity thesis holds that radical reformers likely will produce the exact opposite of what they intended. Society is seen as an infinitely complex system of causal chains, making the consequences of disruptive change entirely unpredictable. In the aftermath of the French Revolution, romantic conservatives such as Edmund Burke formulated a version of the perverse effect in their attacks on the revolution and its egalitarian pretensions. They saw society as an organic whole, more easily damaged than improved, and the divisive individualism, the incessant and ignorant questioning implicit in democracy, would—in their view—unleash chaos. But nature abhors a power vacuum. A demagogic elite, unrestrained by inherited customs, would seize power and rule with an iron fist. Democracy would transmute into tyranny, albeit one that might reflect the base and foolish preferences of the majority. The dream of liberation would become a nightmare of repression. In the middle part of the nineteenth century, even liberals who were sympathetic to democracy fretted over its tyrannical potential. It was commonly believed that the multiple sources of authority in traditional society, which served to preserve a measure of pluralism and individual eccentricity, would eventually be swept aside by the growing power of the people, who would tolerate no activities that did not originate in popular mandate. Alexis de Tocqueville argued that this dissolution of the intermediate structure of authority could leave the individual isolated and vulnerable, unable to resist the ubiquitous and absolute power of the state.
FUTILITY THESIS By the end of the century, the fear of democratic tyranny had receded, and a new type of critic emerged. Motivated more by cynicism than anxiety, the classical elitists (Vilfredo Pareto, Gaetano Mosca, and Robert Michels) argued that the oppressive effects of democracy had not come to pass because democracy itself was impossible. No matter what the constitution says, the inherent dynamics of human interaction always will prevent the masses from exercising power.This was the futility thesis. Pareto used psychological factors to explain this “law” of oligarchy, while Mosca and Michels stressed organizational factors, but they all agreed on the existence of an immanent hierarchical order of things, which meant that so-called democratic institutions were, at best, exercises in futility, and, at worst, expressions of rank hypocrisy.
JEOPARDY THESIS The elitists seemed to understand democracy in a “pure” sense, where all government decisions are presumed to emanate from some clearly defined popular will.That democracy in this sense could never exist was, to some observers, merely a statement of the obvious. Nevertheless, the inexorable extension of the
franchise in the early part of the twentieth century convinced many people that democracy, even in diluted form, was still a threat, if not to liberty then to other values held dear. This is the jeopardy thesis—the idea that progressive reform always will incur a cost. While democracy may bring some benefits to the common people, it extinguishes cultural creativity and belittles heroic and noble deeds. It destroys economic efficiency and elevates mass appetites and prejudices above mental rigour. Such arguments were quite common before World War II (1939–1945) turned democracy into a “hurrah” word, signifying nothing but approbation. Traditional conservatives such as the poet T. S. Eliot insisted that “high” culture was threatened by the vulgar tastes of the masses, who would use democratic mechanisms to impose their debased values. Social coherence also would suffer, as equality of opportunity, an inevitable concomitant of democracy, would create a society of strangers, devoid of historical memory. Thinkers on the radical right, especially fascists, were inspired by Nietzsche’s diatribes against “slave-morality” and mass mediocrity. In their eyes, democracy was a complicated bundle of decadent values—individualism, pacifism, materialism, egalitarianism—which was eroding cultural vitality and the collective spirit.
CONCLUSION The rising tide of democratization and democratic rhetoric that swept through the international community during the latter half of the twentieth century has left the remaining explicitly anti-democratic regimes marooned in global public disapproval. All of the reactionary criticisms that justify such regimes are rarely taken seriously by political scientists or indeed most educated people throughout the world. Nevertheless, some observers, in contemplating how the democratic ethos tends not toward excellence but rather toward the lowest common denominator, point out that the tradition of anti-democratic thought contains at least some grains of truth. After all, even the most beneficial changes entail loss. However, such is the power of the democratic idea that, nowadays, even neofascists feel obliged to claim affinity with it. See also Authority; Democracy; Democracy and Corruption; Democratic Theory; Greek Democracy, Classical; Tyranny of the Majority and Minority Rights. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JOSEPH FEMIA BIBLIOGAPHY Dahl, Robert A. Democracy and Its Critics, New Haven, Conn.:Yale University Press, 1989. Femia, Joseph. Against the Masses:Varieties of Anti-democratic Thought since the French Revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001. Griffin, Roger. The Nature of Fascism. London: Pinter, 1991. Hirschman, Albert O. The Rhetoric of Reaction: Perversity, Futility, Jeopardy. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991. Holmes, Stephen. The Anatomy of Antiliberalism. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993. Meisel, James Hans. The Myth of the Ruling Class. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1958. Saward, Michael. The Terms of Democracy. Cambridge, U.K.: Polity Press, 1998.
62 Anti-Semitism
Anti-Semitism Semites are both Jews and Arabs who emerged from a common ancestral and geographical setting in the Middle East. However, anti-Semitism refers specifically to prejudice against Jews as a religious, ethnic, or racial body. It can include a wide range of attitudes and expressions, from individual hostility to legal discrimination and violence against Jews as a group. Like so many stereotypes, anti-Semitism is based on a myth—one with the power to influence individual attitudes toward Jews and their place in society and, collectively, to impact the larger culture. It has no basis in fact or reason, but its acolytes make vague references to historical or pseudoscientific genetic arguments in support of their prejudices. Accusations against Jews of two millennia ago, or toward some individual Jew today, are portrayed as the collective responsibility of all Jews as a people, who must be punished by strong measures, up to and including genocide. Religious anti-Semitism attacks Jews as being responsible for the death of Jesus, and for practicing their minority faith, which is portrayed as the devil’s product. It promises a cessation of persecution if Jews give up their faith and assimilate into an approved religion. Racial anti-Semitism identifies Jews as a genetically distinct race. They are an innately subhuman race that can never assimilate with the superior culture but conspire to pollute the more advanced Aryan race and control the world, its government, and its economy. They must be stopped at all costs. A recent variant is geographic, based in opposition to Zionism and the existence of the state of Israel. Radical Islam and its allies use motifs from anti-Semitic Europe in pursuit of their political goals. All forms of anti-Semitism have been used to justify discrimination and persecution of Jews.
ORIGINS The term anti-Semitism was concocted by German agitator Wilhelm Marr in about 1880 to indicate hatred of the Jews. Marr favored their forced expulsion from German soil. Jews had faced persecution, enslavement, and dispersion for their monotheism since ancient times. Egypt, Babylonia, Assyria, and Alexandrine Greece were early conquerors. However, modern anti-Semitism had its origins in the Roman Empire. In protecting their rituals and beliefs from the Romans, the Jews raised several rebellions against Roman rule, which gave them the reputation of agitators who were threats to imperial stability.When the Romans finally defeated the Jews in 70 CE, their temple was razed, and they were dispersed throughout the empire. Shortly before this, Jesus preached and died as a Jew living under Roman rule. He was tried in a Jewish court for blasphemy and turned over to the Romans for punishment, which the Roman governor decreed would be execution. By the fourth century the belief emerged among Christians that Jews who were not followers of Jesus were willful unbelievers in the truth, and responsible for his death. After the Emperor Constantine I began the process that made Christianity the
official religion of the Roman Empire, this belief was translated into persecution. During the Middle Ages, nontoleration became a cornerstone of religious policy, and Jews were increasingly identified as usurers and punished in many ways for their refusal to convert, culminating in the violence and murder committed by mobs against various Jewish communities during eight Crusades (intermittently from 1096–1273). In 1215, Pope Innocent III decreed that Jews were to wear a special badge to mark their inferior status whenever they went out. In 1242, Pope Gregory IX was persuaded by an investigating committee of Paris theologians to denounce the Talmud—a fourth-century commentary on rabbinic tradition, Jewish life, and law—as blasphemous and ordered all copies to be burned. Urban Jews were forced to live in special areas, or ghettos, and they were restricted in economic and social life; some of these restrictions lasted until the end of the nineteenth century. As early as 1144, charges were brought against Jews of blood libel, the supposed Jewish drinking of blood of murdered Christian children. When the Black Death swept Europe in the fourteenth century, rumors spread that the Jews were the cause of the plague, and many were massacred. During the Protestant Reformation in the sixteenth century, German theologian and religious reformer Martin Luther, disappointed that the Jews would not convert to his religious views, denounced them as severely as he denounced medieval popes, calling for their property to be confiscated and for their expulsion.
LATER DEVELOPMENTS Under Napoleonic rule, following the French Revolution (1789–1799), Jews were offered the opportunity to participate fully in European political, economic, and social life.The defeat of Napoleon in 1815 brought such advances to a temporary halt, but by 1870 many nations of western Europe granted full citizenship to all Jews. However, anti-Semitism lingered. In 1893 Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish captain in the French army, was falsely convicted of treason by a military court. The evidence against Dreyfus had been faked by two fellow officer, and his conviction was supported by leading French conservatives in the army, the Catholic Church, and anti-Semitic writers, such as Edouard Drumont. The efforts of the noted author, Émile Zola, played a central role in reversing Dreyfus’ unjust conviction in 1899, although it took another seven years for him to be restored to the French army. If the Dreyfus affair indicated that anti-Semitism was not eradicated, it came at a time when the conditions of life for most Jews in western Europe had vastly improved. Destruction of property and massacres of Jews, called pogroms, began in Russia in 1881.The pogroms were instigated by the government to divert the discontent of dissatisfied workers and peasants toward the usual convenient scapegoats, the Jews. Tsarist agents produced a notorious forgery, the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, which purported to reveal a secret Jewish plot to dominate the world. This work emerged in the United States, where anti-Semitism was so strong in some powerful quarters that it became a factor in blocking the immigration of Jews from Europe to the United States, which
Antitrust Policy 63 Nazi leader Adolf Hitler seemed willing to allow until shortly before World War II (1939–1945) began. The most virulent and systematically organized form of government-sponsored racial anti-Semitism emerged in Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945. Following a pattern of gradual escalation, the regime passed the Nuremberg Laws in 1935, which removed Jews from the protection of German law. Jews were excluded from German public life, including business and education, intermarriage with Germans was prohibited, their property was seized, and finally they were imprisoned and forced into slave labor or murdered outright in death camps. As Nazi forces conquered other nations, the Jews in the rest of Europe were doomed, and by 1945 an estimated six million Jews were massacred, executed, or starved to death.
CURRENT ANTI-SEMITISM After the war, the exposure of the death camps led to the framing of the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights and a series of trials of former Nazis complicit in mass murder. Christian religious leaders also have made efforts to end religious anti-Semitism. Still, the racial variety persists today, perpetuated by Holocaust deniers, small gangs, and tiny political parties in many parts of the non-Muslim world. In the Middle East, geographic anti-Semitism is encouraged by governments seeking the destruction of the state of Israel, conceived as a Jewish collectivity. This is intertwined with the activities of Muslim extremists who denounce the Judeo-Christian West. See also Genocide; Holocaust; Zionism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . DONALD G. TANNENBAUM BIBLIOGRAPH Y Abel, Ernest L. The Roots of Anti-Semitism. Cranbury, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1973. Brustein, William I. Roots of Hate: Anti-Semitism in Europe before the Holocaust. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003. Carmichael, Joel. The Satanizing of the Jews: Origin and Development of Mystical Anti-Semitism. New York: Fromm International, 1992. Hay, Malcolm. Thy Brother’s Blood:The Roots of Christian Anti-Semitism. New York: Hart, 1975. Katz, Jacob. From Prejudice to Destruction, Anti-Semitism, 1700–1933. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1980. Kleg, Milton. Hate, Prejudice, and Racism. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993. Laquer, Walter. The Changing Face of Antisemitism: From Ancient Times to the Present Day. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006. Lewis, Bernard. Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice. London: Norton, 1986. Lindemann, Albert S. Esau’s Tears: Modern Anti-Semitism and the Rise of the Jews. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Wyman, David. Abandonment of the Jews: America and the Holocaust, 1941–1945. New York: Pantheon, 1984.
Antitrust Policy Antitrust polices are government regulations prohibiting abusive monopolistic practices of market power. A significant number of countries have developed antitrust statutes and maintain
an active program of antitrust enforcement. Countries based on a market economy generally enforce policies that prevent uncompetitive businesses and discourage dishonest policies within an industry, in addition to other policies that do not benefit the public. In various forms, these policies represent a vital means of regulating competition and form the basis of many public policies in regard to business. The primary intent of competition policy is the general protection of the market economy. Antitrust policies in Europe were a primary focus of discussion following World War II (1939–1945) to restrict anticompetitive agreements and practices and some noncompetitive mergers. They were enforced through international agreements and national laws. The European Commission has filed thousands of decisions involving company agreements and practices for trade in the Common Market.The decisions of the European Commission are based on Articles 85 and 86 of the 1957 Treaty of Rome, which address typical competition restrictions. Article 85 provides a nonexhaustive listing of anticompetitive practices that will be automatically void for “companies aimed at fixing prices, sharing markets, or exchanging confidential information in defiance of the elementary rules of competition and of the interests of the citizens of the European Union.” Whereas Article 85 has a provision for exemption if specific conditions are satisfied, Article 86 does not. Article 86 prohibits abuse of a dominant position (i.e., economic strength preventative of effective competition) that may affect trade between member states and provides a nonexhaustive listing of abusive practices, such as “unfair purchase or selling prices” and “limiting production markets or technical development to the prejudice of customers.” Governments in the European Union and the United States may intervene to restrict or dissolve a monopoly (a single firm that sells output for which no close substitute exists) because the unregulated profit-maximizing monopoly model demonstrates output reduction and increased market power. The argument against monopoly is based on efficiency; some monopolies are believed to create inefficient use of resources as compared to a competitive equilibrium. To prevent an incipient monopoly, governments regulate mergers to avoid concentration of the market and to allow new competitors to enter into the market. The merger of two companies, or the acquisition of one company by another, may be proposed for two reasons. The merger may have the favorable outcome of creating lower prices, which would increase capital of the two companies and make the combined company a stronger competitor. Or the merger could reduce competition, giving the combined company an opportunity to sell at higher prices.
BACKGROUND OF TRUSTS During the industrialization of the United States, the emergence of railroads afforded industries and individuals the ability to conduct business and travel in spite of distances that previously had prevented such efforts. As transportation competition increased, the railroad industry consolidated finances. In the late 1880s and early 1900s, powerful and influential
64 Antitrust Policy financiers, such as Jay Gould, Edward H. Harriman, James J. Hill, Leland Stanford, and Cornelius Vanderbilt, consolidated their corporations, as competition during the age of industrialization increased. The outcome essentially was a form of monopolization. When these trusts obtained a controlling share of an industry, they formed a monopoly that could dominate the industry, preventing other companies from competing against the monopoly. By 1890, the oil and railway industries in particular were restricting competition and establishing price controls, organizing their networks of businesses in trusts that concealed the extent of the monopoly.
U.S. ANTITRUST LEGISLATION The U.S. government enacted the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 against the large monopolistic trusts of the late nineteenth century. The law prohibited monopolization and trusts, as well as restrained trade. The vague language of the law ineffectively discouraged anticompetitive business practices. Furthermore, the act did not create an independent commission to investigate allegations of antitrust law abuses. U.S. presidents Theodore Roosevelt and William Howard Taft strictly enforced antitrust laws on the basis of the Sherman Act. Congress later passed the Clayton Act of 1914 (a supplement to the Sherman Act) to assist the government in preventing monopolies. The Clayton Act listed specific illegal practices— several that were not prohibited specifically by the Sherman Act—such as the practice of tying contracts, which required a consumer to purchase another product before being able to purchase the desired product, and price discrimination, or selling the same product at different prices to different customers (though some industries, such as air travel, are allowed to practice price discrimination). Other prohibitions of the act included exclusive dealing (selling of a product if a consumer agrees not to buy from other producers of the same product) and interlocking directorates, in which at least one director serves on two boards of directors of competing companies. The Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914 created a federal body whose purpose is to oversee markets, with the intent of enforcing antitrust laws.The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) has the power to block horizontal mergers (merging of firms that produce similar products or services) and vertical mergers (merging of firms that produce different products or services with an input-output relation in the production of one specific product. Input-output relation is a circular dependency of capital, entrepreneurship, labor, and land resources (input), and the sale of goods and services to consumers (output). The two 1914 acts established a solid foundation for modern antitrust law enforcement. The intent of antitrust legislation is to discourage abuse of the market economy through practices such as exclusive dealing arrangements, exclusive territories, predatory pricing, price discrimination, refusals to deal, resale price maintenance, and tie-in sales. Antitrust laws enforce competitive limitations upon firms for the benefit of the public (e.g., labor laws) and to be fair to consumers (e.g., regulating the sale of inferior products at higher prices) and potential competitors (such as small businesses).
DEVELOPMENTS IN U.S. ANTITRUST POLICY Not until the mid-1960s did antitrust economics undergo vast reform in the American postwar industrial economy. The conglomerate merger wave in the 1960s—the “Go-Go Years” of the stock market that inaugurated an era of company acquisitions beyond their central industries—involved firms that were entirely disparate in business activities. Many of these conglomerate firms were unsuccessful in managing companies within different countries and markets. Throughout the late 1970s and early 1980s, there were substantial developments in antitrust enforcement and research into strategic business practices. New antitrust thinking emerged that countered the long-held idea that conglomerate firms were anticompetitive. Both England and the United States essentially witnessed a rebirth of laissez-faire philosophy regarding government regulations. An unprecedented number of merger and acquisition activities occurred in the 1980s, and they generally involved using debt capital to purchase a firm, then selling certain components of the firm to pay the debt. The outcome was a sudden increase of buyouts executed without consideration of corporate strategy and at a relatively high cost of capital, which in turn resulted in the early 1990s in widespread bankruptcies of companies unable to pay the inflated interest of high-leverage costs. The sectoral mergers of the 1990s primarily affected banking, defense, health care, and telecommunications. In the 1990s, government regulation demonstrated a more aggressive attitude against anticompetitive mergers and practices. The twenty-first century has been characterized by increased government regulation of the accounting, power utility, and security industries. Governments enforce antitrust laws in the interest of maintaining an efficient society by ensuring competitive markets. Government enforcement of these laws necessitates identifying and banning those corporate practices that may discourage competition.The U.S. Department of Justice and the FTC, for instance, review all potential mergers of companies that may become monopolistic or anticompetitive; legal approval must be granted before the merger is completed. If the primary reason for a proposed merger is a favorable outcome of lower prices (as in the cases of XM and Sirius Radio), which will be efficient for society and fair to consumers and potential competitors, the merger will be granted legal approval. If the merger will result in less competition and an opportunity for the merging firms to increase prices, then it will not be granted legal approval. (An example of this is the proposed Staples and Office Depot merger, which was blocked by the FTC because it would allow the companies to control prices.) Antitrust laws grant the government power to ban anticompetitive practices, and even to divide a monopoly into two companies. Such decisions can be overturned by federal appeals court, sometimes with new stipulations (as was the case with Microsoft in 2001–2002). See also Economic Policy Formulation; Regulation and Rulemaking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RON J. BIGALKE JR.
Apartheid 65 BIBLIOGRAPH Y American Bar Association. ABA Section of Antitrust Law, Antitrust Law Developments, 6th edition. Chicago: ABA Book Publishing, 2007. Armentano, Dominick T. Antitrust and Monopoly: Anatomy of a Policy Failure. New York: Wiley, 1982. Bain, Joe Staten. Barriers to New Competition:Their Character and Consequences in Manufacturing Industries. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1956. Berle, Adolf A., Jr., and Gardiner C Means. The Modern Corporation and Private Property. New York: Macmillan, 1932. Brozen,Yale. Concentration, Mergers, and Public Policy. New York: Macmillan, 1982. Chamberlain, Edward H. The Theory of Monopolistic Competition. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1933. Howard, Marshall C. Antitrust and Trade Regulation. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1983. Lai, Loi Lei, ed. Power System Restructuring and Deregulation:Trading, Performance and Information Technology. New York: Wiley, 2001. Letwin, William. Law and Economic Policy in America:The Evolution of the Sherman Antitrust Law. New York: Random House, 1965. Mason, Edward Sagendorph. Economic Cooperation and the Monopoly Problem. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1957. Posner, Richard A. Antitrust Law: An Economic Perspective. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976. Robinson, Joan. The Economics of Imperfect Competition. London: Macmillan, 1933. Stigler, George J. The Organization of Industry. Homewood, Ill.: Richard D. Irwin, 1968. Williamson, Oliver E. The Economic Institutions of Capitalism. New York: Free Press, 1985.
Apartheid Apartheid is an Afrikaans word meaning “separateness.” It was the official government policy in South Africa from 1948 until a negotiated transition that culminated in the first democratic elections in 1994. In 1976, the UN General Assembly recognized apartheid as a crime against humanity. The idea of racial segregation was not new; similar policies had been introduced in different parts of South Africa long before the Union of 1910.
KEY ASPECTS Apartheid was adopted by the National Party (NP), which came to power in South Africa in 1948. It was built on the growth of Afrikaner nationalism and increasing economic hardship for parts of the Afrikaner population. A new intellectual elite known as the Broederbond, which at the time was a secret organization, was central to the promotion of Afrikaner nationalism. The main architect of apartheid policy was H. F. Verwoerd, who was Minister of Native Affairs during the early 1950s and later became prime minister. One of the central tenets of the apartheid system was the Population Registration Act introduced in 1950. This law required all citizens to have their racial group officially recorded. Decisions were clearly arbitrary in some cases and often were disputed. Race was determined by skin color, but other criteria, such as language and social status, were considered also. Another of the major laws passed was the Group Areas Act in 1950. This clearly designated areas of land for each of the four racial groups (white, coloured, Indian, and native). The consequence of this law was that huge numbers of people were
forcibly relocated. Africans were forced to travel for work and basic goods and services, but the pass law system ensured close regulation of such movements. Later this policy was extended to become the homelands approach. Residents of these “independent” homelands were no longer afforded South African citizenship. The NP also played on white fears of miscegenation, which is the interbreeding of races. The Mixed Marriages Act (1949) and the Immorality Act (1950) outlawed marriage and extramarital sex between different races. The system became ever more pervasive with the introduction in 1953 of “petty apartheid,” which involved racial segregation in public places such as restaurants, lavatories, beaches, hotels, and public transport.
OPPOSITION TO APARTHEID Opposition to apartheid was strongly organized within South Africa itself. During the 1950s, the African National Congress (ANC) forged an alliance with other organizations and adopted a policy of defiance. One peaceful demonstration against the pass law system resulted in the deaths of sixty-nine people in Sharpeville on March 21, 1960. The government reacted by banning all the major resistance groups in 1960. The ANC then formed Umkhonto we Sizwe (Spear of the Nation), which developed a guerrilla warfare strategy. Soon after, in 1963, many of the ANC’s leaders, including Nelson Mandela, were arrested and tried for planning a violent revolution against the state. There was also international pressure from the antiapartheid movement. However, key governments such as the United States and United Kingdom continued to see South Africa as an ally in the cold war. Moreover, many leading economies maintained their economic links with South Africa, and it was only during the 1980s that significant economic sanctions were imposed.
A SYSTEM UNDER PRESSURE Apartheid came under strain during the 1970s due to domestic economic pressures and a renewal of resistance politics. There was a revival of black trade unionism, and the ideology of the black consciousness movement inspired a new generation of black South Africans. Demonstrations against the compulsory use of Afrikaans in black schools began in Soweto in June 1976 and spread across the country. Meanwhile, sections of the business community began to question the economic viability of the apartheid system given the restrictions on labor and inequality in education. As a result, in 1984 attempts at constitutional reform of the system were introduced, including the tricameral parliament. However, the idea of separate development was maintained, and the mass mobilization tactics of the United Democratic Front increased civil unrest.
NEGOTIATED TRANSITION In 1989, F. W. de Klerk became the final apartheid-era president and began negotiating a settlement. In 1990, he released Mandela and the other political prisoners and unbanned all the liberation movements. Despite high levels of political violence, a period of negotiation ensued under the banner of The Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA).
66 Apparentement The ANC, NP, and a number of other, though not all, South African political organizations took part in CODESA. In April 1994, South Africa’s first democratic elections were held, and Nelson Mandela was elected as president. See also Discrimination; Race and Racism; Segregation and Desegregation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STEPHEN R. HURT BIBLIOGRAPH Y Barber, James. 1999. South Africa in the Twentieth Century: A Political History—In Search of a Nation State. Oxford, U.K.: Blackwell, 1999. Dubow, Saul. Racial Segregation and the Origins of Apartheid in South Africa, 1919–36. Basingstoke, U.K.: Macmillan, 1989. Guelke, Adrian. Rethinking the Rise and Fall of Apartheid. Basingstoke, U.K.: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005. Lipton, Merle. Capitalism and Apartheid: South Africa, 1910–86. Aldershot, U.K.: Wildwood House, 1986. O’Meara, Dan. Forty Lost Years:The Apartheid State and the Politics of the National Party 1948–1994. Randburg, South Africa: Ravan Press, 1996. Sparks, Allister. The Mind of South Africa:The Story of the Rise and Fall of Apartheid. London: Mandarin, 1991. Waldmeir, Patti. Anatomy of a Miracle:The End of Apartheid and the Birth of the New South Africa. London:Viking, 1997.
Apparentement Apparentement is the French term for an electoral procedure that is designed to increase the participation of small parties in countries that use proportional voting systems. Proportional electoral systems often have thresholds that require parties to gain a certain percentage of the vote to secure representation. Small parties may be unable to gain the necessary 3 to 5 percent. Apparentement permits minor parties to form electoral coalitions or groupings. The parties continue to be listed separately and generally campaign separately, but they combine their total votes. This increases the chances that the parties will gain representation. If the cartels win seats, those seats are allocated according to predetermined agreements or by proportionality, depending on the country. The system is used in continental Europe, including Switzerland and the Netherlands, some areas of Latin America, and Israel. In France, prior to electoral reforms in 1951, the system was used by centrist parties in an effort to prevent parties at either political extreme from gaining majorities in the Assembly. Studies reveal that apparentement typically reduces disproportionality in electoral systems. Nonetheless, apparentement coalitions are often unstable, especially if member parties find themselves excluded from representation in successive elections. See also Europe, Democracy in; European Parliament; European Political Thought; Political Parties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TOM LANSFORD
Appeasement Appeasement is an influence strategy employed by states in relations with adversaries. Most students of appeasement define it as a policy of easing tensions and avoiding war by
eliminating an opponent’s grievances. Others, however, define it as a strategy of systematic concessions, and concessions are the means by which the strategy is implemented. Thus, terms frequently associated with appeasement include inducements, positive sanctions, conciliation, and accommodation. Appeasement may be considered a subcategory of engagement. The principal mechanism by which appeasement seeks to influence an opponent’s behavior is satiation—satisfying its hunger for land, status, or something else it values. But policy makers may also intend for appeasement to work through reassurance (convincing an insecure adversary that one’s own intentions are benign) or socialization (demonstrating the proper way to behave in international society). Because it seeks to modify an adversary’s behavior through promises and rewards, rather than threats and punishments, appeasement is often regarded as the antithesis of, and an alternative to, deterrence. However, scholars have long recognized that coercive and noncoercive approaches can, and perhaps should, be combined in mixed influence strategies.
WHY DO STATES PURSUE APPEASEMENT? States pursue appeasement policies for a variety of reasons. In some cases, the objective may be short term or tactical—e.g., to conserve resources or buy time in order to rearm so that an adversary may be confronted more effectively. Appeasement may also serve to test the motives of a state whose intentions are ambiguous. In other cases, the goal may be strategic, such as to eliminate the possibility of war with an adversary, or even to transform a relationship from hostility to friendship. The pursuit of appeasement policies is frequently encouraged by the absence of a feasible alternative or by opposition to other options, domestically or internationally.
DOES APPEASEMENT WORK? Appeasement is often regarded as being futile and dangerous. It is considered to be futile because, it is believed, an adversary cannot be placated through concessions. Indeed, concessions are commonly thought to increase the adversary’s appetite for additional gains, leading it to make further demands. Appeasement is regarded as being dangerous because it allegedly undermines the credibility of deterrent threats. Accommodation of the adversary convinces it that the appeasing state is weak and irresolute. Should the state decide to stand firm and resist additional demands, its threats to defend its interests are not believed. Deterrence fails and war results. These concerns were central to the strategy of containment pursued by the United States during the cold war, motivating U.S. policy makers to vigorously counter efforts by the Soviet Union and other communist states to expand their influence. The conventional wisdom regarding appeasement is derived mainly from the experience of Britain and France during the 1930s, when the leaders of those countries attempted unsuccessfully to avert a war with Nazi Germany. Many scholars have argued that Anglo-French conciliation of Germany—reflected particularly in the Munich Agreement of September 1938— caused Hitler to discount French and British promises to defend Poland, leading him to attack that country in September 1939. In a minority opinion, other scholars have disputed
Approval Voting 67 this interpretation. Arguing that Hitler regarded the outcome at Munich as a crushing defeat in which he himself shrank from the prospect of war, they contend that he found AngloFrench threats to defend Poland credible but, determined not to back down again, he decided to attack anyway. In some cases, appeasement has succeeded. Perhaps the most notable instance involves British conciliation of the United States after 1895; within a period of roughly a decade, the government of Great Britain was able to fundamentally transform the relationship between the two countries, not merely eliminating the possibility of an Anglo-United States war, but also securing diplomatic and strategic cooperation from the United States. The success or failure of any effort at appeasement must be evaluated in terms of its objectives. Frequently, an appeasement policy has both minimum and maximum aims. Some may be attained, while others may not, so that the policy may be a partial success and a partial failure. Britain and France failed to prevent war with Nazi Germany, but according to some scholars, they did succeed in buying time for Britain to rearm. American efforts to avoid war with the Soviet Union during the latter stages of World War II (1939–1945) secured that goal, although the cost—Soviet domination of large portions of eastern and central Europe—was high and the U.S.-Soviet cooperation in the postwar world so desired by U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt never materialized.
WHY DOES APPEASEMENT SUCCEED OR FAIL? Factors important to determining whether appeasement succeeds or fails include the nature of the adversary, the inducements offered by the appeasing state and the adversary’s perception of them, and the presence or absence of other reasons for the adversary to respond favorably to the policy. Generally speaking, appeasement is most likely to succeed when the adversary’s aims are limited, when the adversary is motivated by insecurity rather than greed, when the concessions that are offered address the adversary’s concerns directly and fully, and when there exist other reasons—for example, domestic political pressures—for the adversary to accept the concessions and modify its behavior. See also Containment; Deterrence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STEPHEN R. ROCK BIBLIOGRAPH Y Baldwin, David. “The Power of Positive Sanctions.” World Politics 24 (October 1971): 19–38. Beck, Robert J. “Munich’s Lessons Reconsidered.” International Security 14 (Fall 1989): 161–191. Cortright, David, ed. The Price of Peace: Incentives and International Conflict Prevention. Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1997. Kennedy, Paul M. Strategy and Diplomacy, 1870–1945: Eight Studies. London: George Allen and Unwin, 1983. Mommsen, Wolfgang J., and Lothar Kettenacker, eds. The Fascist Challenge and the Policy of Appeasement. London: George Allen and Unwin, 1983. Press, Daryl G. “The Credibility of Power: Assessing the Credibility of Threats during the ‘Appeasement’ Crises of the 1930s.” International Security 29 (Winter 2004/05): 136–169. Richardson, J. L. “New Perspectives on Appeasement: Some Implications for International Relations.” World Politics 40 (April 1988): 289–316.
Ripsman, Norrin M., and Jack S. Levy. “The Realism of Appeasement during the 1930s: Buying Time for Rearmament.” Paper presented at International Studies Association, San Diego, Calif., March, 2006. Rock, Stephen R. Appeasement in International Politics. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2000. Small, Melvin, and Otto Feinstein, eds. Appeasing Fascism: Articles from the Wayne State University Conference on Munich after Fifty Years. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1991.
Appropriation Appropriation is the actual legislative act of designating money. By constitutional design, the U.S. Congress must pass a law in order to spend money: “No money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence of Appropriations made by Law” (U.S. Constitution, Article I, Section 9). Appropriations can occur through an annual appropriations act accounting for discretionary spending or by permanent law accounting for direct spending. Approximately two-thirds of federal spending is direct spending that covers most federal entitlement programs. The remaining one-third is discretionary spending that must go through an authorization process before being funded. The House and Senate Committees on Appropriations have jurisdiction over the appropriation bills. Generally, there are three types of appropriations: regular, continuing, and supplemental. Regular appropriations are the annual budgetary appropriations (i.e., the setting of the annual budget) and cover most of the federal spending. Continuing appropriations are enacted if Congress cannot pass the regular appropriations bill in time and allow for government entities to continue functioning. Supplemental appropriations provide for additional funds at a later date that is not accounted for in the regular appropriations bills.The president also can exercise his power over appropriations by vetoing the appropriations law passed by Congress. See also Budgeting; Legislative Hearings; Monetary Policy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUSAN MARIE OPP
Approval Voting Approval voting is an electoral system that allows voters to indicate their preferences for multiple candidates in elections. All candidates are listed on a ballot, and voters may indicate their preference or vote for one or more of the candidates. Hence, in a contest with five candidates, a voter could vote for between one and five of the office seekers. The candidate who receives the majority of votes is the winner. The system was designed to provide a better means of indicating public sentiment in elections by alleviating concerns that individuals might waste their ballots by voting for a candidate that might not appear capable of winning. In addition, if two or more candidates appealed to the same group, voters could indicate their support for all of them. Proponents have argued that approval voting would reduce the impact of negative voting because voters are less likely to vote against a candidate. Advocates also assert that approval voting would more strongly encourage
68 Aprismo candidates to reach across party or ideological lines. The system was first proposed in the 1970s, and has been used in some nongovernmental bodies, but it has not been used extensively at the governmental level. See also Voting Behavior;Voting Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TOM LANSFORD
Aprismo Aprismo is a political philosophy developed by Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre, the dominant political figure of twentieth century Peru. Derived from his political party (APRA— Alianza Popular Revolucionaria Americana, or Popular Revolutionary American Alliance), aprismo emerged in the 1920s and the 1930s as a response to both imperial capitalism and European Marxism. Haya argued that for “Indoamerica” (Latin America), imperialism had to be viewed as the first stage of capitalism, and that the feudal class persisted in alliance with imperial capitalism. Its strident anti-American tone emerged in its maximum goals, enunciated in 1928, and then modified as a minimal plan in 1932. Over the following decades, Haya developed extensive modifications to his theory. To Haya de la Torre’s followers, aprismo was a full-fledged political philosophy that brought together the best ideas of such disparate thinkers as Karl Marx, Albert Einstein, Arnold J. Toynbee, and many others. To his detractors, aprismo was little more than a hodgepodge of ideas that offered little to improve Peru. APRA’s image as a party rigidly unwilling to compromise prevented it from winning a presidential election until 1985, after Haya de la Torre had died. See also Imperialism; Marxism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HENRY A. DIETZ
Aquinas, Thomas See Thomas Aquinas.
Arab-Israeli Relations The relationship between Arabs and Israel has been hostile not only since the birth of the Jewish state in 1948, but from the foundation of political Zionism in the 1890s. This resulted from a fundamental conflict over Palestine, where the Zionist movement aspired to establish Israel. Palestine had long been Arab territory, and Arabs saw their existence there threatened. The United Nations plan for the partitioning of Palestine in 1947 led to civil war between the Jewish and Arab communities of Palestine. When the British completed their withdrawal from Palestine in May 1948, Jewish forces already occupied part of the proposed Arab state, and about two hundred thousand Arabs had become refugees. Upon the declaration of the state of Israel, Egypt, Transjordan (Jordan), Iraq, Lebanon, and Syria sent troops into Palestine, purportedly to protect the Arab Palestinians. This First Arab-Israeli War (1948–1949) turned
into a disaster for the Arabs, leaving Israeli forces in control of 78 percent of Palestine and, due to the flight or expulsion of many Arab Palestinians, only a small Arab minority. Although Israel and the adjoining Arab states concluded armistice agreements in 1949, violence continued. Further wars followed in 1956 (the Sinai War), 1967 (the Six-Day War), 1973 (the October War), and 1982 (the Lebanon War). Though not directly involving Arab states, Arab-Israeli warfare has been endemic in Lebanon since the 1970s. Guerrilla attacks by Hezbollah forced Israel’s withdrawal from Lebanon in 2000. An air and land war by the Israelis against Hezbollah in 2006 met fierce resistance and, some say, produced Israel’s first military failure. In addition, Palestinian uprisings began in 1987 and, after subsiding in the mid-1990s, resumed more bloodily in 2000. The 1967 War was a major turning point. Following an intense crisis, Israel quickly defeated its neighbors and occupied parts of Egypt (Sinai), the rest of mandatory Palestine (the Gaza Strip and the West Bank, including East Jerusalem), and southwestern Syria (the Golan Heights). Following this, Israel announced that it had no territorial aspirations, and the Arab states accepted the idea of peace in return for withdrawal. However, Israelis began to establish new Jewish settlements and then rejected calls for full withdrawal.
ARAB GOVERNMENTS AND THE CONFLICT The role of Arab governments has always been complicated. With the Arab public opposing Israel, governments sought legitimacy by seeming to support this cause and by using the issue as a weapon against each other. They were rarely serious about confronting Israel, however. In 1948, what looked like an attempt to prevent Israel’s emergence had more to do with Egyptian-Transjordanian rivalry. Transjordan had a secret arrangement with the Israelis to divide up the area of the proposed Arab state and, except in the Old City of Jerusalem, avoided combat with its apparent enemy. In 1967, popular sentiment forced King Husayn to go to war with his tacit ally and to lose part of his kingdom in order to save the rest. While publicly rejecting peace, Egypt responded favorably to mediation attempts during the 1950s. To dispel accusations of softness, Egypt allowed itself to be pulled into a crisis in 1967 by letting Israel attack. This is a prime example of what scholar Michael Barnett (1988) calls “impression management” and “symbolic entrapment,” where one entity preempts a peaceful solution (that may make it appear weak) rather than an attack. While using the issue as a legitimacy resource, Arab regimes have not been willing to subordinate their own interests for the sake of the Palestinian cause. While Egypt and Syria went to war in 1973, this was to jump-start a peace settlement that would hopefully get their own territories back, not to liberate Palestine. Significant changes in Arab-Israeli relationships have occurred in recent years. Egypt made peace with Israel in 1979 to obtain full Israeli withdrawal from its territory. The Oslo Accords of 1994 led to the establishment of a Palestinian Authority and the hope of a two-state solution to the Palestine problem. Although
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See also Arab League; Arab Political Thought; Islamic Political Thought; Jewish Political Thought; Palestine; Zionism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GLENN E. PERRY BIBLIOGRAPH Y Barnett, Michael N. Dialogues in Arab Politics. New York: Columbia University Press, 1988. Hudson, Michael C. Arab Politics:The Search for Legitimacy. New Haven, Conn.:Yale University Press, 1979. Kazziha, Walid. “The Impact of Palestine on Arab Politics.” In The Arab State, edited by Giacomo Luciani, 306–309. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990. Kurtulus, Ersun. “The Notion of a ‘Pre-emptive War:’ The Six Day War Revisited.” Middle East Journal 61 (Spring 2007): 220–239. Morris, Benny. Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881–2001. New York:Vintage, 2001. Novo, Joseph. King Abdallah and Palestine: A Territorial Ambition. New York: St. Martin’s, 1996. Rubin, Barry. The Arab States and Palestine. Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1981. Shlaim, Avi. Collusion across the Jordan: King Abdullah, the Zionist Movement, and the Partition of Palestine. Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon, 1988. ———. The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World, 2nd ed. Norton, 2001. Smith, Charles D. (2004). Palestine and the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A History with Documents, 5th ed. New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2004.
Arab League The Arab League, the full name of which is the League of Arab States, is a regional interstate organization headquartered in Cairo. Founded in 1945 by seven Arab states to strengthen their ties and preserve their independence, the League now has twenty-two members: Algeria, Bahrain, Comoros, Djibouti, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Palestine (represented by the Palestine Liberation Organization), Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. Three member states—Comoros, Somalia, and Djibouti—according to the usual criteria, are not Arab countries, although they
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the process broke down six years later, it provided King Husayn an opportunity to conclude formal peace with Israel. Under American pressure, Mauritania also established diplomatic relations with Israel in 1999. An Israeli trade office was set up in Qatar in 1996. Israeli offices established in Morocco, Oman, and Tunisia were closed in 2000.The Arab boycott of Israel, declared by the Arab League in 1945, has withered over time. With militantly anti-Israel Islamist forces growing and non-Arab Iran taking the lead in opposing Israel, unstable Arab regimes have become desperate for a settlement in order to appease popular passions. Consequently, a Saudi initiative of 2002, adopted unanimously by an Arab League summit but rejected by Israel, articulates the willingness of all Arab states to establish normal diplomatic ties with Israel in return for full withdrawal and a Palestinian state. Many Israelis fear that continuing to rule Palestinians eventually will doom them as a Jewish state, and yet they want to keep much of the West Bank and to impose limits on the independence of any Arab Palestinian state.They are also unwilling to consider the return of a substantial number of Palestinian refugees to Israel.
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have cultural and historical connections to the Arab world. Normally the dominant member, Egypt was suspended from the organization from 1979 to 1989 because of its peace treaty with Israel, and the organization’s headquarters moved to Tunis until 1990, when it returned to Cairo. The Arab League grew out of popular demands for Arab unity. It also was a response to the rivalries of Arab leaders, as the British-allied Hashimite rulers of Transjordan (now Jordan) and Iraq hoped to form a larger entity in the Fertile Crescent and put another member of their family on the throne of Syria. British Foreign Minister Anthony Eden gave his government’s go-ahead to the idea of Arab unity in 1941, and this was followed by Transjordanian and Iraqi proposals for Greater Syria and Fertile Crescent unions, respectively. Such ideas evoked opposition from other Arab states, particularly Egypt, which did not want a new rival to its primacy in the Arab world, and the Saudi ruling family, which had overthrown Hashimite rule in the Hijaz two decades earlier and feared a future attempt at restoration. Thus, in order to counter Hashimite proposals, Egyptian Prime Minister Mustafa al-Nahhas invited representatives of the Arab states to meet in Alexandria in 1944. The result was the conclusion of an Alexandria Protocol calling for the formation of a League of Arab States, which was accomplished with the signing of the pact (or covenant) of the organization at a meeting in Cairo in February of the following year. While the pact gave lip service to the possibility of “closer cooperation,” the formation of the Arab League was in fact a victory for the principle of state sovereignty. Each member of the League wields one vote in its main organ, the council. Meetings are held on the level of either
70 Arab Political Economy foreign ministers or heads of state. The principle of unanimity prevails, in that decisions made by a mere majority are not binding on members not voting for those decisions. A secretariat, headed by a Secretary-General (Amr Musa since 2001), is chosen by the council by a two-thirds vote, and an Economic and Social Council also exists. An Arab parliament, without legislative authority and of uncertain significance, was established in 2005. The Arab League’s goal of political and military cooperation, as in the case of the Treaty of Joint Defense and Economic Cooperation of 1950, has been hindered by persistent divisions among the organization’s members. But the League has engaged in numerous mediation efforts and has organized peacekeeping forces, such as in Kuwait in 1961 and Lebanon in 1976. The League has established specialized agencies for cooperation in a variety of nonpolitical matters, including science and technology, administrative development, research, labor, agricultural development, satellite communications, broadcasting, and investment. It maintains information centers throughout the world. See also Middle Eastern Politics and Society; Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC); Pan-Arabism and Pan-Islamism; Sovereignty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GLENN E. PERRY BIBLIOGRAPH Y Dean, Lucy, ed. “League of Arab States.” In The Middle East and North Africa 2009, 55th ed., 1386–1397. London: Routledge, 2008 Hasou, Tawfig Y. The Struggle for the Arab World: Egypt’s Nasser and the Arab League. London: KPI, 1985 Hassouna, Hussein A. The League of Arab States and Regional Disputes: A Study of Middle East Conflicts. Dobbs Ferry, N.Y.: Oceana, 1975. Khalil, Muhammad. The Arab States and the Arab League: A Documentary Record.Vol. II. International Affairs. Beirut: Khayats, 1962. MacDonald, Robert W. The League of Arab States: A Study in Regional Organization. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1965.
Arab Political Economy The Arab political economy revolves around three main axes: (1) economic growth and structural transformation (developments in different sectors of the economy), (2) state structures and economic policy, and (3) domestic socioeconomic actors. Beginning in the seventeenth century, the Arab world has been drawn into a global economy dominated by the European powers.The need of the Ottoman Empire (1299–1922) to raise revenues to support its administrative and military reforms resulted in the introduction of private property. As a result, over time local notables and tax collectors gained the rights to enough property to allow some to establish commercial estates equivalent to large commercially owned farms. These estates propelled agricultural export trade with Europe and the Arab world’s subsequent integration into the global economy. A series of Ottoman reforms in the 1800s, which were practiced in other Arab countries such as Morocco, further entrenched the institution of private property in the empire.
Tax collection and administration were reformed so that more revenues could be absorbed by the central state, and these reform efforts had as a direct consequence the rise of a propertied elite that was shaped by agricultural export growth. Agriculture also attracted large sums of foreign investment into the empire, making this sector the most important in shaping the political-economic landscape of the Arab world during this period. After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the colonial state was introduced into the Arab world, with repressive apparatuses strengthened by European support that allowed these states to enjoy relative autonomy in relation to society. These structures gave rise to further capitalist reforms throughout the Arab world. During colonialism, public education and public service were introduced into the Arab political-economic sphere. Owing to these reforms, in the 1930s a professional— but not propertied—middle class emerged. Thus the colonial state entrenched the interests of the landowning classes while introducing this new middle class. The postcolonial state in the Arab world, emerging from independence movements in the 1950s and 1960s, featured dramatically altered political-economic patterns. A process of radical class restructuring occurred through which the historically marginalized groups—workers, farmers, and small landowners—were integrated into the postcolonial state’s economic policy planning, while the historically advantaged groups—large land-owning elites—faced economic discrimination.Varying policies of agrarian reform and import substitution industrialization (ISI) benefited the formerly marginalized groups and shored up the new middle class though mass education and bureaucratic expansion. The postcolonial state, underpinned by ISI policies, created and absorbed the major productive, commercial, and financial assets of the countries into the state structure. The introduction of oil revenues throughout much of the Arab world further concentrated political and economic power into the state, allowing the state to foster a new elite that would be dependent on the distribution of oil revenues. This also introduced the “Dutch Disease,” the exploitation of natural resources at the expense of the development of a manufacturing sector. Taken together, these processes gave rise to the emergence of rentier states, states that derive a substantial amount of revenues from the rents of one resource, and this arrangement has shaped state-society relations since the 1960s. This form of corporatism has functioned to subordinate various socioeconomic groups to the state, precluding the potential for effective class-based political opposition. As a result, throughout the Arab world political and economic power remains concentrated in the hands of those actors that are embedded in the state’s corporatist mosaic. The gradual transition away from state-led development toward market-led growth has seen the rise of economic actors that have directly benefited from economic liberalization policies enacted since the 1990s. Contemporary political-economy landscapes are shaped by these liberalization policies and also by a number of socioeconomic challenges.
Arab Political Thought 71 Demographically, the Arab world is one of the youngest regions in the world. As populations grow, urbanization rates are increasing rapidly. The collapse of state-led development and a growing, urbanized population has meant that unemployment is increasing throughout the region, particularly among youth. Additionally, the pressures of democratization are echoed both from within by domestic actors and from without by Western countries. Emerging sectors such as tourism and finance have begun to displace traditional export sectors in some countries, particularly the Gulf Arab countries. Finally, the challenges of regional and global integration will serve as the context in which future Arab political-economic landscapes will be shaped. See also Arab Political Thought; Economic Development, State-led; Economic Policy Formulation; Economic Systems, Comparative. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SAMER N. ABBOUD BIBLIOGRAPH Y Ayubi, Nazih N. Over-stating the Arab State: Politics and Society in the Middle East. London: I. B. Tauris, 1995. Chaudhry, Kiren Aziz. The Price of Wealth: Economics and Institutions in the Middle East. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1997. Henry, Clement M., and Robert Springborg. Globalization and the Politics of Development in the Middle East. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001. Heydemann, Steven. Networks of Privilege in the Middle East:The Politics of Economic Reform Revisited. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004. Owen, Roger. The Middle East in the World Economy, 1800–1914. London: I. B. Tauris, 1993. Owen, Roger, and Sevket Pamuk. A History of Middle East Economies in the Twentieth Century. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999. Richards, Alan, and John Waterbury. A Political Economy of the Middle East. Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 2008. Rivlin, Paul. Arab Economies in the Twenty-first Century. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
Arab Political Thought Like all intellectual landscapes, the history and trajectory of Arab political thought must be contextualized within specific cultural, social, legal, and religious periods. Arab political thought has evolved against the backdrop of three dramatic settings: the rise of Islam and the eventual absorption of many Arab lands into the Ottoman Empire (1299–1922); the Western setting and the colonial experience; and the postcolonial setting and modern Arab statehood. The five phases of Arab political thought include the pre-Ottoman phase; the early Ottoman phase (1299–1798); the liberal phase (1789–1939); the nationalist phase (1940–1967); and the contemporary, postnationalist phase. Pre-Ottoman Arab philosophers were heavily influenced by both the rise of Islam and the translation of Greek works into Arabic, and they were concerned with questions of political organization and the nature of sovereign power. Al-Farabi developed a theory of the state that was to be adopted in Europe more than seven centuries later. He argued that under unjust conditions, people would gather together and agree to renounce rights to a sovereign who
served as a protector of the community. He also argued that to live peacefully, groups needed to be formed along recognizable bonds, such as geography, culture, or language. AlGhazali advanced these ideas and contended that the innate human need for belonging would naturally produce forms of social and political organization bound by laws and a sovereign power. More than a hundred years later, Ibn Jama’a wrote that a sovereign could only maintain power through force and that the people would only accept the rule of the sovereign if the sovereign could exercise this force. This period was characterized by concerns over questions of sovereignty, power, and political organization and, in particular, with how these questions could be reconciled with various schools of Islamic jurisprudence. The early Ottoman phase was shaped by the influential Arab philosopher Ibn Khaldun. In his work, he related the rise of the state to that of society. According to Ibn Khaldun, as society developed throughout history it needed increasingly complex forms of organization. The state, he believed, was inseparable from society. Arab thought during this phase was predominantly concerned with questions of political and religious authority and the obligations of the sovereign to society. Sayyid Murtada al-Zabidi, for example, drew an important distinction between the legitimacy of the caliphate, which was earned by religious merit, and the sultanate, which was earned by force. Because the Ottoman empire was a Sunni Muslim state, questions concerning the application of Islamic law, the treatment of non-Muslim communities, and intra-Muslim relations with other non-Sunni sects dominated Arab political thought during this period. The liberal phase witnessed the secularization of Arab political thought and reflected the Arab experience with European colonialism and modernity. This period was defined by the emergence of nationalist thought, which asserted that the commonalities of certain groups meant that they formed a political community. Three conceptions of political community are identifiable in this period: religious, territorial, and ethnolinguistic nationalism. This liberal phase served as the midwife to more complex forms of Arab nationalism that dominated Arab political thought until 1967. Arab nationalism articulated Arabs as a single cultural, social, ethnic, and linguistic community that should be brought under the organization of a central Arab state and drew on various ideological currents, including fascism and socialism. The contemporary phase of Arab political thought is defined by three factors that emerged in the aftermath of the defeat of Arab armies by Israel in the 1967 war: the collapse of socialism as an ideological model; the discrediting of secular Arab nationalism that had emerged during the liberal phase; and the reintegration of religious discourse into mainstream Arab political thought. This contemporary phase, characterized by modern, independent Arab states, is further defined by growing social, economic, and geopolitical trends in the Arab world, including growing population rates, the presence of Israel, increasing Western encroachment, the rise of Islamism, and the persistence of authoritarianism.
72 Arab Socialism See also Al-Farabi; Islamic Political Thought; Middle-Eastern Politics and Society. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SAMER N. ABBOUD BIBLIOGRAPH Y Abu-Rabi‘, Ibrahim M. Contemporary Arab Thought: Studies in Post-1967 Arab Intellectual History. London: Pluto, 2004. Browers, Michaelle. Democracy and Civil Society in Arab Political Thought: Transcultural Possibilities. Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 2006. Choueiri,Youssef M. Arab Nationalism: A History—Nation and State in the Arab World. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 2000. Hourani, Albert H. Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1798–1939. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
Arab Socialism Arab socialism is the name given to an ideology that was particularly prevalent in the Arab world in the 1960s, combining Arab nationalism with policies designed to favor the less privileged segments of society—notably involving land reform, a planned economy, subsidized prices for necessities, and the nationalization, in whole or in part, of large business enterprises. It represented an attack both on economic underdevelopment and extreme inequality. The term Arab socialism emphasized the ideology’s allegedly distinctive features in comparison with other kinds of socialism. Although socialist ideas appeared in the Arab world as early the late nineteenth century, the notion of a specifically Arab kind of socialism seems to have originated with the Baath Party and later was embraced by the regime of President Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt (after 1958, the United Arab Republic, UAR). The term also was applied in Arab countries such as Libya and Algeria that at that time were described as “progressive,” or “liberated.” It tended to be an expression of Arab nationalism and, with its rejection of capitalism and communism, of nonalignment in the cold war.
ORIGINS OF EGYPT’S ARAB SOCIALISM Characterized by pragmatism, the Nasser regime gradually evolved from a vague emphasis on social justice and democracy and opposition to feudalism and monopoly and the domination of capital in 1952 to fully embracing Arab socialism in the early 1960s. A first step in this direction was the enactment in 1952 of an Agrarian Reform Act that limited ownership to two hundred faddans (slightly more than two hundred acres or eighty-one hectares) and providing small plots for previously landless peasants, but in the beginning the regime showed signs of favoring private enterprise. Then nationalization occurred in several specific circumstances, as in the case of the Suez Canal Company in 1956 and in 1960 some leading banks. By the late 1950, references to a “socialist, democratic, and cooperative society” abounded, and the first of a series of five-year plans went into effect in 1960. Nationalization of large enterprises accelerated during 1961, thus completing the transition to Arab socialism. The state took possession of all banks, insurance companies, and fortyfour companies involved in various sectors and acquired a 50 percent interest in eighty-six other enterprises. The maximum ownership in some companies was set at LE10,000 (US$1,825).
Other nationalization followed during subsequent months. Thus Egypt’s economy became one of the most statist outside the communist world, although it left considerable room for small-scale private ownership, particularly in agriculture. The maximum salary was set at LE5,000 (US$912), and the tax on incomes more than LE10,000 (US$1,825) at 90 percent. Maximum land ownership per individual was reduced to one hundred faddans (forty hectares) and eventually to fifty faddans.
ARAB SOCIALISM AND COMMUNISM Emphasis was given to contrasts between Arab socialism and communism. Listing seven major differences between the two, Nasser’s confidant, Mohamed Heikal (Muhammad Haykal), began by arguing that Arab socialism rejects the communist solution of “proletarian dictatorship” and the elimination of classes through violence in favor of giving the underprivileged their rightful share of property “within a framework of national unity” without resorting to bloodshed. Unlike the communist equation of property with exploitation, he described the Arab socialist belief in property earned through work, which indeed should be extended to as many people as possible. Some observers have questioned the depths of Nasser’s socialist transformation. As there was not enough land to go around, most peasants remained landless, and landholding families retained much of their property and dominated local politics. News of continuing “feudalism” in 1966 created a sensation, followed by steps to rectify this. Some explain this by pointing to a leadership that came disproportionately from the equivalent of the Russian kulak class or, in a few cases, from big landholding families. Marxists talked about the rise of a new class of privileged technocrats and a new “state bourgeoisie” and pointed to the evasion of progressive taxes.
SEEKING INDIGENOUS ROOTS Arab socialists generally sought to establish that their ideology had indigenous roots. Islam in particular came to be interpreted by Arab socialists as having had socialist principles that had been disregarded in subsequent centuries. Nasser argued that all religions “call for social justice.” For example, he maintained that gross inequality could not have emerged if the Islamic requirement of giving 2.5 percent of one’s wealth each year to the poor had been followed.
DECLINE OF ARAB SOCIALISM With Nasser’s death in 1970 and succession by Anwar Sadat, Arab socialism gradually faded away. Sadat adopted the idea of infitah (opening) to capitalist investment. State controls over the economy have been removed slowly and land reform undone. Nasser’s social revolution has largely been reversed. See also Arab Political Economy; Arab Political Thought; Communism; Ideologies, Political; Socialism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GLENN E. PERRY BIBLIOGRAPHY Ansari, Hamid. Egypt:The Stalled Society. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1986. Binder, Leonard. In a Moment of Enthusiasm: Political Power and the Second Stratum in Egypt. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978.
Arendt, Hannah 73 Dekmejian, H. Hrair. Egypt under Nasir: A Study of Political Dynamics. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1971. Hanna, Sami A., and George H. Gardner, eds. Arab Socialism: A Documentary Survey. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1969. Ismael, Tareq Y. The Arab Left. Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1976. Karpat, Kemal H., ed. Political and Social Thought in the Contemporary Middle East, 2nd ed. New York: Praeger, 1982. Khadduri Majid. Political Trends in the Arab World:The Role of Ideas and Ideals in Politics. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1970. O’Brien, Patrick. The Revolution in Egypt’s Economic System: From Private Enterprise to Socialism, 1952–1965. London: Oxford University Press, 1966.
Arbitration Arbitration is a long-standing form of adjudication that seeks to provide more economical, less formal, quicker, and more expert trial proceedings. The process was recognized in the ancient world, mentioned in the Quran, and served asa model for rabbinical courts. George Washington referred to it in his will. Although it is meant to be an alternative to judicial litigation, arbitration more closely resembles court proceedings than structured negotiation mechanisms, like mediation. Under contemporary perceptions, arbitration is more than an ancillary form of adjudication. In Scherk v. Alberto-Culver Co., 417 U.S. 506 (1974), the U.S. Supreme Court deemed arbitration vital to international commerce; in Rodriguez v. Shearson/Am. Express, Inc., 490 U.S. 477 (1989), it proclaimed arbitration instrumental to fulfilling the promise of constitutional due process. The improper operation of judicial processes has made arbitration necessary. As former Chief Justice Warren Burger stated, judicial litigation takes too long, costs too much, and can decimate human relationships. Ordinary legal rights fall by the wayside. Faced with dwindling social resources and political deadlock, the Supreme Court chose to advocate for privatized justice and the submission of civil disputes to arbitration. Arbitration in the United States is governed by the Federal Arbitration Act (FAA). Enacted in 1925, the FAA contains provisions establishing the validity of arbitration agreements and enforceability of arbitral awards. The legislation embodies a “hospitable” federal policy on arbitration. The case law has added substantially to its content over the years. More than forty U.S. Supreme Court opinions establish that the federal law of arbitration preempts conflicting state laws (making the FAA the exclusive national law of arbitration); the act applies to the vast majority of employment arbitration agreements despite the exclusion in FAA § 1, and arbitral proceedings are the equal of judicial trials for litigating claims. Moreover, arbitrations are isolated events with no general impact. The court also has determined that statutory claims can be submitted to arbitration, thereby substantially increasing the jurisdictional range of arbitration. In Penn Plaza v. Pyett, 129 S. Ct. 1456 (2009), for example, the Supreme Court ruled that arbitrators could decide civil rights claims. In a word, arbitration thrives in U.S. law. It is greatly favored by courts and legal doctrine. The case law makes it exceedingly difficult to void arbitration agreements or nullify arbitral awards. California and neighboring states dissent from the general consensus by invalidating arbitration in adhesionary
circumstances. The federal preemption doctrine, however, keeps the dissension in check by giving the federal support of arbitration its full doctrinal impact. Arbitration is structurally resilient and adaptive. It seeks solutions and avoids impasse. Its ethic is pragmatic. Proposed congressional legislation, buttressed by some lobbying groups and a small minority of academic commentators, threatens the current practice by prohibiting arbitration in unilateral contracts. The wholesale invalidation of predispute arbitration agreements in adhesionary sectors could compromise the basic legitimacy of arbitration by creating the erroneous impression that arbitration is an abusive process that caters solely to the richest and most powerful parties. The U.S. Supreme Court’s depiction is more accurate: Arbitration supplies meaningful access to an effective means of redressing grievances through third-party decision making. Arbitration also has wide currency in global commerce. It recently expanded its reach to the mixed political-commercial issues of investment between developed and developing countries. European democracies, like France and England, have embraced arbitration particularly in matters of transborder commerce, giving it—for the time being—somewhat less play in the internal administration of justice. Arbitral adjudication has taken hold in Latin America and China. Despite some resistance and a few flaws, it is the most universal and effective extant adjudicatory process. See also Adjudication; Supreme Court. . . . . . . . . . . . . . THOMAS E. CARBONNEAU BIBLIOGRAPHY Born, Gary B. International Commercial Arbitration, 2 vols. Boston: Kluwer Law International, 2009. Burger, Warren. “Our Vicious Legal Spiral.” Judges Journal 16, (Fall 1977): 23. Carbonneau, Thomas E. The Law and Practice of Arbitration, 3rd ed. Huntington, N.Y.: Juris, 2009. Edmonson, Larry E. Domke on Commercial Arbitration, 3rd ed., 2 vols. St. Paul, Minn.: West, 2009. MacNeil, Ian R. American Arbitration Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992. Searle Civil Justice Institute. “Consumer Arbitration before the American Arbitration Association” (Preliminary Report). Chicago: Searle Center on Law, Regulation, and Economic Growth, Northwestern University School of Law, March 2009.
Archives, National See National Archives.
Arendt, Hannah Hannah Arendt (1906–1975) was born in Hanover, Germany, to a secular Jewish middle-class family. Dedicated to study early on, Arendt completed a doctoral dissertation in 1929 at Heidelberg University. During this same period, Arendt became increasingly preoccupied with the issue of German Jewish identity in response to rising anti-Semitism. She began writing a biography of Rahel Varnhagen, who was a Jewish salon hostess in Berlin in the early 1800s. Although the work
74 Arendt, Hannah
During her career as a political thinker, Hannah Arendt capably blended historical analysis with philosophical reflection on topics including anti-Semitism and totalitarianism. source: AP Images
was not published until 1958, it marked the start of Arendt’s lifelong career as a political thinker who showed a unique gift of blending historical analysis with philosophical reflection. In 1933, with the Nazis’ rise to power, Arendt fled to Paris and worked in a number of Jewish refugee organizations. In 1940, Arendt and her second husband, Heinrich Blüche, left Paris as it fell under German control. They eventually made their way to New York in 1941, and Arendt became an American citizen in 1951. By then her academic career was taking off, and she became one of the most influential but controversial thinkers of the twentieth century. Arendt’s first major publication in English was The Origins of Totalitarianism in 1951. This large volume, which is divided into three parts, traces the historical conditions that set the stage for the rise of totalitarianism under the broad themes of anti-Semitism and imperialism. What made the book controversial at the time was the third part, which paints Nazism and Stalinism with the same stroke, which was totalitarianism. On this important point, Arendt based her argument on philosophical rather than historical grounds. Totalitarianism as such is characterized by “ideological thinking,” which in essence is a form of radical idealism that is sustained by a closed system of logic. It is the mind working in singularity rather than in plurality. Hence totalitarianism can only thrive in societies
where individuals are completely isolated from one another. This observation led her to write what many consider to be her most original contribution to political thought, The Human Condition, in 1958. In it Arendt put forth a concept of action as direct interaction between individuals without any intermediary. Speech is thus the quintessential action and is what makes us distinctly human. Freedom and human plurality are realized through action. Yet it was Arendt’s later analysis of a related subject that proved to be even more controversial. This was the question of individual responsibility in totalitarian movements and the occasion was the Eichmann trial in 1961. As its firsthand observer, Arendt concluded that the former Nazi henchman Adolf Eichmann was no Mephistopheles nor Faust. Rather, Arendt observed in her Eichmann in Jerusalem, “he merely, to put the matter colloquially, never realized what he was doing . . . It was sheer thoughtlessness . . . that predisposed him to become one of the greatest criminals of that period” (1964, 287–288). To some, this pronouncement understated the magnitude of Eichmann’s crime. However, in Arendt’s last but incomplete major work, which was published posthumously in 1978 as Life of the Mind, thinking is identified as an internal dialogue that everyone can and should have with oneself at all times and as such, it is a moral obligation that no one can evade. Eichmann’s defense that he was a “mere functionary” following orders from above was therefore inexcusable. Since the late 1980s, scholarship on Arendt has flourished significantly on both sides of the Atlantic and beyond. Her continued appeal may be related to the fact in her lifetime, she had never lent herself to the political cause of either the liberal or the communist camp. Arendt is thus seen by many to be particularly pertinent to the post–cold war world of our time, including a vision of participatory democracy that is not right-based. See also Stalinism;Totalitarianism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THERESA M. LEE BIBLIOGRAPHY Arendt, Hannah. Eichmann in Jerusalem: A Report on the Banality of Evil, rev. and enl. ed. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1964. ———. “Thinking and Moral Considerations.” Social Research 38 (1971): 417–446. ———. “On Hannah Arendt.” In Hannah Arendt: The Recovery of the Public World, edited by Melvyn A. Hill, 301–339. New York: St. Marin’s, 1979. ———. Lectures on Kant’s Political Philosophy, edited by Ronald Beiner. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982. Canovan, Margaret. Hannah Arendt: A Reinterpretation of Her Political Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. d’Entreves, Maurizio Passerin. “Hannah Arendt.” In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by Edward N. Zalta. Stanford, Calif.: Metaphysics Research Lab, Center for the Study of Language and Information, 2006, http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/arendt. Honig, Bonnie, ed. Feminist Interpretations of Hannah Arendt. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995. Villa, Dana, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Hannah Arendt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. Young-Bruehl, Elizabeth. Hannah Arendt: For Love of the World. New Haven, Conn.:Yale University Press, 1982.
Armenian Genocide 75
Aristotle Aristotle (384–322 BCE) was born in Stagira, in Northern Greece. His father, Nicomachus, was court physician to Amyntas III, king of Macedon, and Aristotle maintained close connections to the Macedonian regime throughout his life. At the age of seventeen, he traveled to Athens, to study in Plato’s Academy, where he stayed for twenty years, until Plato’s death in 347. After he left the Academy, Aristotle’s travels included returning to Macedon to tutor the future Alexander the Great. He returned to Athens, in 336, to open his own school, the Lyceum, where he stayed until the death of Alexander the Great in 323. The corpus of Aristotle’s works that have come down to us are not finished products, prepared for publication, but were composed in connection with his school, most likely for use in lecturing. Aristotle also wrote dialogues, which were renowned for their literary qualities, but aside from fragments that have been recovered, these were all lost. Aristotle’s works encompass an enormous range of subjects, including logic, scientific studies of the natural world, metaphysics, ethics, and politics. His Politics has a strong claim to being the first extant work of political science. Aristotle’s moral and political philosophy shows the strong influence of Plato, and he provides powerful, detailed answers to important questions that Plato raised. But Aristotle clearly broke with Plato in important respects, notably in rejecting the latter’s conception of forms or ideas that exist apart from their instances in the material world. In Politics, Aristotle departs from Plato most significantly in detailed examination of existing political forms, which he is willing to consider more or less on their own terms. In Book II of the work, Aristotle presents a harsh—although frequently clearly misguided—critique of Plato’s Republic and Laws, generally in regard to what he views as these works’ excessive utopianism. In Politics, Aristotle explores the polis in its entirety, including different kinds of poleis and their distinctive features, factors that lead to the stability and instability of different forms. He also subjects the polis to moral inquiry, including what it means for human beings to live in it, and how it contributes to their well-being. In addition to the polis as it exists, Aristotle considers ideal representatives at different levels, ranging between ideal states unconstrained by actual circumstances, to remedying defects in existing states. In Book IV of the work, he presents a powerful argument for a relative ideal, a state that achieves the important end of social-political stability, based on rule by the middle class—as opposed to the political instability occasioned by rule of either the rich or the poor. In composing Politics, Aristotle drew on studies of 158 different Greek constitutions. One of these studies, a booklength analysis of the constitution of Athens, by either Aristotle or his students, is extant. Aristotle demonstrates impressive command of the history and workings of innumerable specific cases. The polis existed in myriad forms, while the Greek world was torn by constant tumult, revolution, and change.
His studies of different instances—primarily of democracies, oligarchies, and tyrannies—compared and contrasted across numerous dimensions, provide a wealth of empirical analysis perhaps unmatched until relatively recent times. See also Greek Political Thought, Ancient; Plato. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GEORGE KLOSKO BIBLIOGRAPHY Aristotle. The Complete Works of Aristotle:The Revised Oxford Translation, 2 vols, edited by Jonathan Barnes. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1984. Keyt, David, and Fred Miller, eds. A Companion to Aristotle’s Politics. Oxford, U.K.: Blackwell, 1991. Kraut, Richard. Aristotle. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. Mulgan, Richard. Aristotle’s Political Theory. Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon, 1977. Newman, William L., ed. The Politics of Aristotle, 4 vols. Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon, 1887–1902.
Armenian Genocide The Armenian Genocide is often cited as the first genocide of the twentieth century, carried out against the Armenian population of the Ottoman Empire during World War I (1914–1918). Many in Turkey, however, dispute that the event should be considered genocide, and it remains a controversial topic both within Turkey and internationally.
ARMENIANS UNDER THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE Armenians, a Christian people, had long lived in the territory of the Ottoman Empire in eastern Anatolia and in cities such as Istanbul. Until the late nineteenth century, Armenians were referred to as millet-i sadıka (loyal nation) by the Ottomans. Like other minorities, they were free to practice their religion and had their own courts, although they were also subject to heavy taxes and denied rights granted to Muslims. In the late 1800s, increasingly despotic rule by the Ottoman sultan combined with Russian claims to act as a protector of Christian peoples in the Ottoman Empire led some Armenians to clamor for independence. Armenian unrest was forcefully put down by the government, resulting in tens of thousands of deaths from 1894 to 1897. In 1909, the Ottoman Empire came under the control of the Young Turks, a movement within the bureacuracy and military that advocated reform within the Ottoman Empire. However, by 1913 the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), a more militant and nationalistic faction among the Young Turks, gained control over the government. The CUP was led by Ismail Enver Pasha, Mehmed Talat Pasha, and Ahmed Djemal Pasha, all individuals who have been accused of being behind the Armenian genocide.
WORLD WAR I AND GENOCIDE In 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined World War I and attacked Russian forces. The Russians defeated the Ottomans. Some Armenians who lived in the area—there were Armenians on both sides of the Ottoman-Russian border—assisted Russian forces. The Ottoman government, however, accused the
76 Armenian Genocide Armenians en masse of being in league with the Russians, making them an enemy of the state. This would provide the pretext for the genocide. The genocide began in 1915. First, Armenians in the army were disarmed, placed into labor battalions, and then killed. On April 24, 1915, Armenian intellectuals in Istanbul were arrested and deported by the government. They were eventually executed. (April 24 thus serves as the day of commemoration by those who acknowledge the genocide.) This was followed in May 1915 by a Temporary Law on Deportation, which gave the government the right to deport anyone it deemed a threat to national security. Several months later, a Temporary Law of Expropriation and Confiscation was passed, giving the government the right to seize Armenian property. Throughout 1915, the Ottoman authorities expelled the Armenians in eastern Anatolia from their homes, told them they would be relocated, and then marched them off to concentration camps in the desert between Jerablus and Deir ez-Zor, where many would perish due to lack of food and water. In other cases, Armenians were drowned, raped, or simply shot on sight by local Turks and Kurds, who acted with impunity. According to many sources, the CUP created an administrative unit (Teshkilai Mahusuna) and special “butcher battalions,” manned by violent criminals released from prison, to ensure that actions against the Armenians were carried out. Estimates are that between one and one and a half-million (of the roughly two and a half million Armenians in the Ottoman Empire) perished. Official Turkish records, published in 2008, indicate that nearly a million Armenians disappeared between 1914 and 1918. Hundreds of eyewitnesses, including American missionaries and German military advisers (who were on the Ottoman side during the war) documented various massacres. For example, the German ambassador wrote to Berlin in 1916 that the Ottoman government sought “to resolve its Armenian question by the destruction of the Armenian race” (Hovannisian, 1992, xii). U.S. Ambassador to the Ottoman Empire Henry Morgenthau wrote in 1915 that “deportation of and excesses against peaceful Armenians is increasing and from harrowing reports of eyewitnesses it appears that a campaign of race extermination is in progress under a pretext of reprisal against rebellion” (Winter, 2003, 150). The New York Times ran more than one hundred articles on the plight of the Armenians in 1915, and many prominent Americans, including former President Theodore Roosevelt and orator and politician William Jennings Bryan, spoke out against it. The Ottoman government, when not denying the massacres, claimed that they were driven by the needs of the war. Some Ottoman officials who refused to comply with orders were dismissed, and Turks who protected Armenians risked death themselves. Survivors of the genocide would find refuge in Russia, the Middle East, and, eventually, in Europe, North America, Africa, and Australia, making Armenians one of the world’s largest diaspora groups. After the war, the Ottoman Empire was defeated, and its wartime leaders were put on trial, often in absentia. In 1919,
a Turkish court convicted many Ottoman officials for war crimes, claiming that “the disaster visiting the Armenians was not a local or isolated event. It was the result of a premeditated decision taken by a central body . . . and the immolations and excesses which took place were based on oral or written orders issued by that central body” (Balakian, 2003, 339). This court functioned while Turkey was still occupied by Western powers. Later, Turkish army officer Mustapha Kemal (later Ataturk) organized Turkish resistance to foreign occupation, creating the Republic of Turkey in 1923 and securing the release of war criminals held by the British.
CONTEMPORARY CONTROVERSIES The Armenian genocide remains a very sensitive issue. While Armenians have lobbied for international recognition of the crime committed against them, the Turkish government refuses to acknowledge that the actions taken against the Armenians consistute a genocide. In its view, the Armenian claims of more than a million dead are wildly inflated, and those deaths that did occur among Armenians, Kurds, and Turks were the result of localized activity carried out during the war due to civil conflict. In this interpretation, there was no systematic, centralized campaign to eliminate Armenians. Others, however, would seek to justify actions taken against Armenians as necessary for the Turkish war effort, as Armenians were deemed to be unreliable. Many individuals, such as the Nobel-prize winning Turkish author Orhan Pamuk, who have spoken of the Armenian genocide, have been brought before Turkish courts for “insulting Turkishness.” Efforts within Turkey to examine the issue have been subjected to harassment by the government, although some Turkish scholars, such as Turkish historian Taner Akcam, are willing to acknowledge that a genocide against Armenians did occur. Internationally, Turkey’s refusal to acknowledge the Armenian genocide is held up by some as a reason not to admit Turkey to the European Union. See also Genocide; Nationalism;War Crimes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PAUL JAMES KUBICEK BIBLIOGRAPHY Akcam, Taner. A Shameful Act:The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility. New York: Metropolitan Books, 2006. Balakian, Peter. The Burning Tigris:The Armenian Genocide and America’s Response. New York: Harper Collins, 2003. Bloxham, Donald. The Great Game of Genocide: Imperialism, Nationalism, and the Destruction of the Ottoman Armenians. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. Hovannisian, Richard, ed. The Armenian Genocide: History, Politics, Ethics. New York: St. Martin’s, 1992. ———. Remembrance and Denial:The Case of the Armenian Genocide. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1999. Suny, Ronald G. Looking toward Ararat: Armenia in Modern History. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993. Winter, Jay, ed. America and the Armenian Genocide. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
Arms, Freedom to Bear See Freedom to Bear Arms.
Arms Control 77
Arms Control Arms control is both a process and a result. On the one hand, it involves the conscious and dedicated effort by two or more parties (typically nation-states) to negotiate an improved security relationship. On the other, arms control is often manifested by an agreement to regulate some aspect of the participating states’ military capabilities or potential. The agreement may apply to the location, amount, readiness, or types of military forces, weapons, or facilities, but always presupposes cooperation or joint action among the participants regarding their military programs. While not as centrally important today as it was during the second half of the twentieth century, arms control, in its broadest definition that encompasses not only traditional negotiations and agreements but also nonproliferation, counterproliferation, and disarmament, still has a role in a globalizing world that has ongoing security concerns. Arms control and other cooperative security initiatives should be seen as part of a nation-state’s foreign policy toolbox, available when necessary to enhance a state’s security, but seldom the only tools available; they complement rather than substitute for diplomatic, economic, and coercive military actions. Arms control was born during the cold war to stall the military conflict primarily between the former Soviet Union, and its satellite states, and the United States long enough for the West to win. With the end of the cold war in 1991, the world experienced a flush of optimism and arms control activity that reached its zenith in the mid-1990s as formal agreements and cooperative measures were signed and entered into force with astounding speed. Both sides codified lower numbers of forces to ensure that the cold war was really over, but eventually arms control found a place dealing with the new concerns of proliferation, regional instability, and economic and environmental security. The value of arms control appeared to be growing in the new world, as states attempted to stem the illegal proliferation of weapons of mass destruction to rogue nations or groups and to meet their security needs in a multipolar, more interdependent world. By the late 1990s, arms control had lost its luster for the United States and had become less important to a national security stance that no longer recognized the importance of such policies in the globalizing post–cold war world. The arrival of President George W. Bush in 2001 and the attacks of September 11 put the country on a war footing against a dramatically different kind of enemy. Arms control, at least from an American perspective, seemed passé, if not dead, a stance the Bush administration encouraged. With the 2008 election of President Barack Obama, however, the United States restored arms control to its formerly central place in American diplomacy, and the international security agenda facing the new president required renewed attention to this policy approach. The Obama administration also saw arms control as a good way to try to restore better relations with Russia after several years of increasing antagonism.
WHAT IS ARMS CONTROL? Arms control can be defined as any agreement among states to regulate some aspect of their military capability or potential. Proponents of the concept believe that while the negotiating methods, regions of concern, and weapons involved may have changed, the underlying principles and objectives of arms control remain relevant today. The arms control process is intended to serve as a means of enhancing a state’s national security; it should not be pursued as an end unto itself. Arms control also should be distinguished from disarmament, the rationale for which is that armaments have been the major cause of international instability and conflict, and only through reductions in the weaponry of all nations can the world achieve peace. Proponents of disarmament have an overall goal of reducing the size of military forces, budgets, explosive power, and other aggregate measures. COOPERATIVE SECURITY
Arms control falls under the rubric of cooperative security, a concept that has been used to outline a more peaceful and idealistic approach to security. One commonly accepted definition of cooperative security is a commitment to regulate the size, technical composition, investment patterns, and operational practices of all military forces by mutual consent for mutual benefit. Cooperative security is slightly different in meaning than collective security or collective defense. Collective security is a political and legal obligation of member states to defend the integrity of individual states within a group of treaty signatories, whereas collective defense is more narrowly defined as a commitment of all states to defend each other from outside aggression. By contrast, cooperative security can include the introduction of measures that reduce the risk of war, measures that are not necessarily directed against any specific state or coalition, a definition that definitely includes arms control. DISARMAMENT
The classical practices underlying disarmament can be found almost as far back as the beginnings of recorded Western history. Early practices were largely postconflict impositions of limitations on military force by the victor upon the vanquished. However, there were also examples of efforts to avoid conflict by cooperating to demilitarize likely regions of contact and restrict the use of new and destructive technologies. Efforts to impose some degree of order on interstate conflict focused on the advance of legal standards toward just war. Another series of efforts included demilitarizing colonial forces and avoiding distant conflicts. The period of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries was marked by dramatic increases in the lethality of warfare and a parallel move toward bounding the employment of new weapons. Efforts were made to ban the use of certain systems and munitions, limit numbers of advanced systems deployed, and restrict the geographic employment of forces. Traditionally then, disarmament was used to indicate the full range of endeavors to reduce and restrict military weapons and forces through a wide variety of means, from cooperation
78 Arms Control
Jimmy Carter and Leonid Brezhnev shake hands at the signing of the SALT II Treaty in Vienna, Austria. The treaty was part of a nuclear arms control effort between the United States and the Soviet Union. source: © Bettmann/Corbis
to imposition. These efforts included the demilitarization or deconfliction of potential regions of conflict, postconflict limitations on state forces and weapons, as well as attempts to limit and eliminate new and destructive technologies. Efforts also included regulating the conduct of warfare, from determinations of noncombatant status to precepts of just and moral uses of armed force. Until the early 1960s, the concept of disarmament was broadly used as an umbrella under which all of these arrangements and means of implementation could reside. ARMS CONTROL
Arms control belongs to a group of closely related views whose common theme is peace through the manipulation of force, and is but one of a series of alternative approaches to achieving international security through military strategies. The centrality of the concept of disarmament was supplanted by the term arms control early in the nuclear age. World War II (1939–1945) saw the introduction of what many
described as the “ultimate weapon,” or the atomic bomb, as well as near-global technologies of delivery.With the failure of early proposals to either eliminate or internationalize control over atomic weapons, the focus shifted toward limiting their development and spread and controlling their use and effects. Western academics and policy analysts soon realized that disarmament in the literal sense of eliminating nuclear weapons was not going to happen; these weapons had become a longterm reality of the international system. Thus, as they began examining these weapons and nuclear strategy, they adopted a preference for terminology that directly captured efforts to come to grips with “controlling” these weapons. In the mid-1950s, policy makers began rethinking an approach that had emphasized general and complete disarmament and considered instead limited, partial measures that would gradually enhance confidence in cooperative security arrangements. Thus, more modest goals under the rubric of arms control came to replace the propaganda-laden disarmament efforts of the late
Arms Control 79 1940s and early 1950s. International security specialists began using the term arms control in place of disarmament, which they felt lacked precision and smacked of utopianism. The seminal books on the subject published in the early 1960s all preferred arms control as a more comprehensive term. Austrian scholar Hedley Bull differentiated the two as follows: disarmament is the reduction or abolition of armaments, while arms control is restraint internationally exercised upon armaments policy— not only the number of weapons, but also their character, development, and use. The concept and theory of arms control was developed by a small number of academic study groups in the United States and Great Britain, who published the three seminal works on arms control in 1961. Strategy and Arms Control, by Thomas Schelling and Morton Halperin, reflected the findings of a 1960 summer study group organized under the auspices of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. The basic premise of this book was that cooperative arrangements with adversaries could have the same objectives as sensible military policies in reducing the likelihood of war. The authors were influenced by the work of another member of the summer study, Donald G. Brennan, who served as editor of Arms Control, Disarmament, and National Security. Similarly, The Control of the Arms Race: Disarmament and Arms Control in the Missile Age, by Hedley Bull, was based on a series of symposia held at Oxford University in 1960. These three works form the essential basis for understanding modern arms control theory. The arms control perspective was perhaps best expressed by Schelling and Halperin when they framed the arms control construct as follows: We believe that arms control is a promising . . . enlargement of the scope of our military strategy. It rests essentially on the recognition that our military relation with potential enemies is not one of pure conflict and opposition, but involves strong elements of mutual interest in the avoidance of a war that neither side wants, in minimizing the costs and risks of the arms competition, and in curtailing the scope and violence of war in the event it occurs. (1) Arms control in the nuclear age was framed as a component part of an overall military and national security strategy—an instrument of policy and an adjunct to force posture, not a utopian or moral crusade. It captured the more cooperative side of policy, focusing not on imposition but on negotiation and compromise, recognizing the shared interest in avoiding nuclear conflict.
ARMS CONTROL IN THE COLD WAR EARLY COLD WAR MULTILATERAL EFFORTS
Multilateral efforts early in the cold war sought to affect the control of nuclear weapons by limiting the physical scope of the weapons, their testing, and their further technological development and proliferation. Multilateral agreements prior to the 1970s banned placing nuclear weapons in Antarctica, outer space, or the earth’s seabed. Regional nuclear-weaponfree zones also were established during this period in Latin
America and later in the South Pacific, Africa, Southeast Asia, and Central Asia. Early restrictions on atmospheric testing were supplemented by efforts to ban all atmospheric tests and eventually all weapons test explosions, even underground. The early multilateral efforts were capped by the 1968 Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT) that sought to prevent future additions to the nuclear club by establishing a framework for additional multilateral efforts extending to biological and chemical weapons and other arenas of arms control. The NPT also paid service to its disarmament heritage by containing a clause calling on all nuclear weapons states to seek the eventual elimination of their nuclear arsenals. With the establishment of the NPT regime, the primary focus of arms control focus during the second half of the cold war centered on bilateral strategic controls between the United States and the Soviet Union. The meaning of arms control subsequently narrowed to a focus on the formal negotiating process, characterized by staged, multipart negotiation, implementation, and verification phases. THE SALT ERA
The first effort of the bilateral U.S.-Soviet nuclear arms control process led to the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) and three treaties—an Interim Agreement on Offensive Weapons and Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (both signed in 1972, together called SALT I), and the 1979 SALT II treaty. Cold war tensions and a dangerous and expensive nuclear arms race, whose potential ramifications had been made evident by the Cuban Missile Crisis, spurred both the United States and the Soviet Union in the 1960s into a series of cooperative measures and steps toward bilateral cooperation to limit future strategic systems. With the development of sufficient capabilities in national technical means of unilateral verification, formal bilateral negotiations on SALT began in 1969. SALT I froze the total number of deployed intercontinental ballistic missiles on both sides and limited the total number of maritime strategic systems that could be deployed. It also limited the development and deployment of future antiballistic missile systems and restricted defense technologies. The two sides agreed on the outline of a follow-on agreement at the Vladivostok Summit in 1974. Subsequent negotiations led to SALT II, which placed an aggregate limit on deployed strategic launch vehicles and also limited the number of systems that could be equipped with multiple warheads. THE START ERA
The second series of negotiations between the United States and the Soviet Union addressed force reductions through the Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START), leading to the START I and START II treaties and the elimination of an entire class of weapons through the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty. Beginning simultaneously with the SALT talks, a broader series of East-West efforts had addressed the reduction of tensions between the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the Warsaw Pact. By 1987, the INF treaty negotiations came to fruition, and both sides’ intermediate-range missiles were withdrawn and destroyed. A key legacy of this agreement, in addition to its
80 Arms Control precedent for elimination of an entire category of weapon systems, was its reliance on on-site inspection teams to verify missile removal and destruction on the other side’s territory. The START talks began in 1982 and proceeded alongside an extensive series of nuclear confidence-building measures addressing risk reduction and data sharing. The 1992 START I Treaty required measured reductions in both nuclear weapons and delivery vehicles, with intrusive verification provisions to ensure compliance. The bilateral nuclear arms control process was so firmly established that even with the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the two sides were still able to quickly negotiate the 1993 START II Treaty, in which both sides agreed to further reduce their nuclear arsenals. In addition, cooperative efforts succeeded in consolidating control of Soviet nuclear systems in the Russian Republic and initiating a broad effort known as cooperative threat reduction measures to reduce the chances of proliferation from the former Soviet Union. At the 1997 Helsinki summit meeting, both countries committed themselves to continue the strategic arms reduction process to even lower levels of nuclear warheads through a START III round, but this plan was obviated by the 2002 Moscow Treaty (officially the Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty, or SORT). THE MOSCOW TREATY AND BEYOND
The Moscow Treaty called for continued reductions in both sides’ arsenals of deployed strategic warheads, but with no formal verification measures to ensure compliance. Given that START was scheduled to expire in December 2009, and SORT in December 2012, the two states began negotiations on a replacement strategic agreement in earnest after Barack Obama became president of the United States in 2009. MULTILATERAL ARMS CONTROL SUCCESSES
Arms control has not been solely focused on bilateral U.S.Soviet strategic issues since the 1970s. There have been parallel efforts under way in multiple other fields, often led by the United Nations Conference on Disarmament. These multilateral discussions were not as highly charged politically as the bilateral efforts, but they did achieve several notable accomplishments. For example, in 1972 the world agreed to ban the production, stockpiling, and use of biological and toxin weapons (the Biological Weapons Convention), and in 1993 it agreed to a similar treaty on chemical weapons (the Chemical Weapons Convention). NATO and the Warsaw Pact came to an agreement on conventional force levels, composition, and disposition in the Conventional Forces in Europe Treaty in 1990. A Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty was signed in Geneva in 1996 (although it has not yet entered into force), and discussions are still ongoing regarding a global Fissile Materials Cutoff Treaty. A series of nuclear-weapon-free zones has essentially denuclearized the entire Southern Hemisphere. A coalition of states and nongovernmental organizations led the effort to ban landmines in 1997 (the Ottawa Convention), and several informal groupings of states were created to prevent the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction technologies through organizations such as the Zangger Committee, the Australia Group, the Wassenaar Arrangement, and the Nuclear Suppliers Group.
ARMS CONTROL AND DISARMAMENT TODAY The agenda of existing, active efforts in the arena of arms control and disarmament remains extensive. The potential for nuclear proliferation—whether materials, components, systems, weapons, or expertise—keeps nuclear arms control on the agenda. Small arms and light weapons remain outside of any effective controls. Other weapons with catastrophic potential—particularly biological and chemical—while subject to international controls and even bans, remain a threat due to further development and possible proliferation. Far-reaching technological developments have opened up entire new arenas of potential and actual military development in areas such as information technology and outer space. Ongoing arms control efforts—unilateral, bilateral, and multilateral, formal and informal, between nations and nonstate parties in some cases—are addressing this wide agenda. The U.S.-Russian strategic arms control implementation process will take decades to complete. This is a massive, difficult, expensive, and often contentious process, and it will be compounded with each new increment of cuts. The added factor of dealing with strategic defenses will complicate this bilateral endgame, at least in the short term, but it also holds the potential—at least to some observers—of being the only route to the continued safe drawdown of the two strategic nuclear arsenals. In addition, the United States and Russia have yet to address the additional nonstrategic nuclear weapons that are included in their arsenals, which will even further complicate bilateral arms controls. Similar cooperative efforts to dismantle, control, and destroy former Soviet chemical and biological weapons and capabilities extend the scope and horizons of the bilateral strategic arms control effort. The highly formal cold war bilateral arms control process will certainly be altered, but it is far from over. We also can expect a continuation of multilateral arms control and disarmament efforts, particularly toward halting and reversing the proliferation and development of nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons.Work remains to be done in fully implementing the NPT and the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, and in improving the implementation of the Biological and Chemical Weapons Conventions. Regional arms control and disarmament efforts are just emerging. Europe has long addressed security cooperation, confidence-building, and conventional arms control issues, and that effort will persist as the region continues to stake out its future course. Other regions have adopted nuclear-weapon-free zones, and some have established regional cooperative programs on a range of economic, political, and security issues. New and emerging arenas for arms control and disarmament include existing efforts among some states and nonstate actors to address controls or bans on small arms, at least academic discussion of controls on advanced conventional weapons, and emerging venues of military interest—and thus arms control interest—in space and cyberspace. All of these efforts are only in their infancy. Humankind has a long legacy of attempts to limit the potential and destructive results of warfare. Today, as modern
Arms Race 81 technologies threaten massive destruction and suffering, nations will continue to strive for humane and measured applications of force. As long as weapons remain tools of international relations, citizens of those nations will be involved in arms control and disarmament. For nearly three generations, policy development and intellectual advancement in the field of international relations have focused on the role of arms control and used the specialized language developed for that purpose. This field of international policy will remain viable and vital into the foreseeable future. See also Arms Race; Conflict Resolution; Nuclear Club; Nuclear Proliferation and Nonproliferation;Weapons of Mass Destruction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JEFFREY LARSEN BIBLIOGRAPH Y Arbotov, Alexei, and Rose Gottemoeller. “New Presidents, New Agreements? Advancing U.S.-Russian Strategic Arms Control.” Arms Control Today (July-August 2008), www.armscontrol.org/act/2008_07-08/CoverStory. Arms Control Association. Arms Control and National Security: An Introduction. Washington, D.C.: Arms Control Association, 1989. Bernstein, Paul. “International Partnerships to Combat Weapons of Mass Destruction.” Occasional Paper 6. Washington, D.C.: National Defense University, May 2008. Blechman, Barry, ed. Unblocking the Road to Zero: Perspective of Advanced Nuclear Nations. Nuclear Security Series. Washington, D.C.: Henry L. Stimson Center, February 2009. Brennan, Donald G., ed. Arms Control, Disarmament, and National Security. New York: George Braziller, 1961. Brown, Harold. “Is Arms Control Dead?” Washington Quarterly 23, no. 2 (2000): 171–232. Bull, Hedley. The Control of the Arms Race: Disarmament and Arms Control in the Missile Age. New York: Praeger, 1961. Burns, Richard Dean, ed. Encyclopedia of Arms Control and Disarmament, 3 vols. New York: Scribner’s, 1993. Campbell, Kurt M., Robert J. Einhorn, and Mitchell B. Reiss, eds. The Nuclear Tipping Point:Why States Reconsider Their Nuclear Choices. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 2004. Carter, Ashton B., William J. Perry, and John D. Steinbruner. A New Concept of Cooperative Security. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1992. Daalder, Ivo, and Jan Lodal. “The Logic of Zero: Toward a World without Nuclear Weapons.” Foreign Affairs 87 (November-December 2008): 80–95. Dunn, Lewis A., and Victor Alexxi. “Arms Control by Other Means.” Survival 42, no. 4 (2000): 223–238. Gaddis, John Lewis. Cold War Statesmen Confront the Bomb: Nuclear Diplomacy Since 1945. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Gray, Colin S. House of Cards:Why Arms Control Must Fail. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1992. Kaye, Dalia Dassa. Talking to the Enemy:Track Two Diplomacy in the Middle East and South Asia. Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND, 2007. Krepon, Michael, and Dan Caldwell. The Politics of Arms Control Treaty Ratification. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 1992. Larsen, Jeffrey A., ed. Arms Control. Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 2002. ———. “Neo-Arms Control in the Bush Administration.” Disarmament Diplomacy 80 (Autumn 2005): 49–54. ———. “Arms Control and the Obama Administration: Coming in from the Cold.” Strategic Insights 8 (April 2009), www.nps.edu/Academics/ centers/ccc/publications/OnlineJournal/2009/Apr/larsenApr09.html. Larsen, Jeffrey A., and Gregory J. Rattray, eds. Arms Control Toward the 21st Century. Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1996. Larsen, Jeffrey A., and James M. Smith. Historical Dictionary of Arms Control and Disarmament. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow, 2005. Larsen, Jeffrey A., and James J. Wirtz, eds. Arms Control and Cooperative Security. Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 2009.
Levi, Michael A., and Michael E. O’Hanlon. The Future of Arms Control. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 2005. Lindemyer, Jeff. “Memorandum to President-Elect Obama: A New Arms Control and Non-proliferation Agenda.” Washington, D.C.: Center for Arms Control and Non-proliferation, June 2008, www.policyarchive. org/bitstream/handle/10207/11816/Memorandum%20to%20Presidentelect%20Obama%20%20A%20New%20Arms%20Control%20and%20 Non-Proliferation%20Agenda.pdf?sequence=1. Platt, Alan. The Politics of Arms Control and the Strategic Balance. Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND, 1982. Schelling, Thomas, and Morton Halperin. Strategy and Arms Control. New York: Twentieth Century Fund, 1961. Schultz, George P., William J. Perry, Henry A. Kissinger, and Sam Nunn. “A World Free of Nuclear Weapons,” Wall Street Journal, January 4, 2007, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB116787515251566636.html. Sims, Jennifer E. Icarus Restrained: An Intellectual History of Nuclear Arms Control 1945–1960. Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 1990. Trachtenberg, Marc. “Arms Control: Thirty Years On.” Daedalus: Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 120 (Winter 1991): 203–216. Woolf, Amy F., Mary Beth Nikitin, and Paul K. Kerr. Arms Control and Nonproliferaiton: A Catalog of Treaties and Agreements. CRS Report for Congress no. RL33865. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service, February 10, 2009.
Arms Race An arms race is generally understood as a process of competitive acquisition of weaponry. The domestic and international forces driving an arms race may be as era-defining as global ideological rivalry or as idiosyncratic as the preferences of an admiral’s spouse, but evidence of hostility between the racers is a definitional requirement, usually including an assertion on each side that the buildups are necessary because of the growing arsenal of the opponent. Arms racers are often pairs of nation-states, but interactive arming may occur also between alliances, within nation-states, between armed services, within armed services, or among nonstate actors. One example of complex interactions among more than two nation-states is trilateral arming among China, the United States and the Soviet Union during the cold war era. Arms racing may precede war, substitute for war, or grow out of unresolved issues following war, but as a rule, weapons production during wartime is not considered arms racing. Races are identified by the names of the participants (e.g., U.S.-Soviet Arms Race) as well as by the nature of the weaponry (e.g., the nuclear arms race). Arms races also may be distinguished according to whether they are essentially qualitative or quantitative. Qualitative arms racing means that participants compete to develop higher quality, more effective arsenals. Qualitative races are characterized by weapons whose accuracy, range, and lethality change quickly and by rapid research and development of new weapons technologies. Quantitative racing is competition in numbers of existing weaponry. Arms control specialists find that quantitative races are easier to limit by agreement than qualitative races. Rapidly moving qualitative races also facilitate agreement, but only in obsolescent technologies.
CONCEPTUALIZATIONS Arms races are conceptualized in several ways. One view is that arms racing can be understood as a mechanistic process like the
82 Arms Race motion of billiard balls but capable of generating unanticipated and undesired effects such as World War I (1914–1918), or a nuclear war catalyzed by a crisis. Other analysts see arms racing as tacit but intelligent communication, in which acquisition of weapons systems becomes a coded conversation. This view assumes that adversaries know and understand each other’s political goals and that new weaponry becomes reasonably well known on both sides, perhaps by open testing. A policy instrument conceptualization views arms racing as a device to achieve political-economic goals, foreign and domestic, deliberately and rationally. Arms racing also may be conceived as a less rational result of internal bureaucratic forces: domestic political and economic bargaining, competition among military services, incremental decision making, and failure to discard old programs, such as the U.S. horse cavalry. In this view the arms buildup is a result of a militaryindustrial complex grafted onto the legislature. Large-scale weapons systems are seen as fruit of a patronage system and may have little to do with the outside world. Choice of adversary is then mostly a historical accident and may be altered to meet domestic political, including electoral, needs. Some scholars, such as Brian Eslea (1985), understand arms racing in part or in whole as an aberrant consequence of psychological pressures on decision making, so that racing is propelled by misperception, genuine psychopathology, or imperatives of gender on decision making. Larger theoretical arguments about interstate conflict dynamics have posited a role for competitive armaments processes in catastrophe theory, in the intersection of competition for resources and political alliances as well as in escalation of disputes to crises and thence to war. The fact that arms races often originate in or precipitate territorial disputes leads to the inclusion of contiguity (close proximity, usually understood as a shared border) and geostrategic data in many explanations. EXAMPLES OF ARMS RACES
Soviet Union-United States, 1948–1989 Israel-rejectionist states, various dates; e.g., 1957–1966 India-Pakistan, various; 1957–1964 Chile-Peru, 1868–1879 England-Germany, 1898–1914
ARE ARMS RACES RISKY? Under what circumstances is arms racing dangerous? When is it stabilizing? Deterrence theorists assert that some arms races contribute to conflict stabilization, hence to peace (deterrence stability). Intriligator and Brito argue (1984) that for some constellations of weaponry, racing leads to peace. Power equilibrium hypotheses and power transition arguments also can be developed in which military power is used to restore balance and order. Similar arguments apply to horizontal proliferation as potentially stabilizing. Racing also may preserve peace at least temporarily by substituting another arena for competition. However, arms races may be deterrence-stable (in the sense that ratios of weapons remain constant while the arsenals grow),
while being neither mechanically stable, nor crisis-stable. Arms races may then be war precursors in the long term because mechanical instability can occur within deterrence stability or other forms of stability. Some types of arms races are probably more hazardous than others. Observers cannot avoid the conclusion that racing in weapons of mass destruction (WMD)—chemical, biological, nuclear, radiological—is inherently dangerous. Arms racing in nuclear weapons is risky even if tightly controlled, simply because of the inevitable environmental contamination before, during, and after the arms race, and because of the risks of accidental detonation, loss, theft, and diversion. As weapons proliferate, into whose hands they may devolve becomes a more urgent question. The specter of the “terrorist” use of WMD looms large, but it should not obscure the risk that status quo powers themselves may not be reasonable users of WMD. Does arms racing itself risk interstate war? Arms racing may be perilous because it can be a method of maximizing arsenals before initiating a war (risk of a long and severe war). Alternatively, arms racing may be misunderstood by a potential adversary as signaling imminent attack when none is intended (risk of an accidental war). Arms racing from a position of notable inferiority may even invite preemptive attack (deterrence failure). Arms racing is not typical nation-state behavior. Scholars come to contrasting conclusions about the political consequences of arms racing, depending on variations in their original assumptions, definitions of terms, conceptualizations, and initial political conditions. Outcomes are affected by dynamic factors such as power transitions and the type and form of the race and by specifics such as the nature of the weaponry, as well as the risks taken in deployment, such as instituting automatic launch-on-warning mechanisms. On balance, the risk posed by arms racing in general cannot be given a single answer. The social science term arms racing, understood as unstable escalatory processes, is now established in the natural sciences as well, especially in the context of evolutionary theory. In biology, arms racing is understood as an interactive process of adaptive defense and offense, against pathogens, parasites or predators. For instance, in a predator-prey pair, racing prey animals evolve resistance to predator toxins, while predators evolve more effective poisons, capturing the social science concepts of dyadic relationships and action-reaction spirals. See also Arms Control; Cold War; Nuclear Club; Nuclear Proliferation and Nonproliferation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T. C. SMITH BIBLIOGRAPHY Bueno de Mesquita, Bruce, and David Lalman. “Arms Races and the Opportunity for Peace.” Synthese 76 (December 2004): 263–283. Choucri, Nazli, and Robert C. North. Nations in Conflict: National Growth and International Violence. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1975. Cohn, Carol. “Sex and Death in the Rational World of Defense Intellectuals,” Signs 12 (Summer 1987): 687–718. Dror,Yehezkel. Crazy States: A Counterconventional Strategic Problem. Millwood, N.Y.: Kraus, 1980.
Aron, Raymond 83 Eslea, Brian. Fathering the Unthinkable: Masculinity, Scientists and the Nuclear Arms Race. Wolfeboro, N.H.: Longwood, 1985 Feshbach, Murray. Ecological Disaster: Cleaning Up the Hidden Legacy of the Soviet Regime: A Twentieth Century Fund Report (Russia in Transition). New York: Twentieth Century Foundation, 1994. Gray, Colin. The Soviet-American Arms Race. Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1976. Hoffman, David. The Dead Hand:The Untold Story of the Cold War Arms Race and Its Dangerous Legacy. New York: Doubleday, 2009. Holsti, Ole. Crisis Escalation War. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1972. Holt, Robert, Brian L. Job, and Lawrence Markus. “Catastrophe Theory and the Study of War.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 22 (June 1978): 171–208. Huntington, Samuel. “Arms Races: Prerequisites and Results.” Public Policy 7 (1958): 41–86. Intriligator, Michael, and Dagobert Brito. “Can Arms Races Lead to the Outbreak of War?” Journal of Conflict Resolution 28 (March 1984): 63–84. Klare, Michael. “The Next Great Arms Race.” Foreign Affairs 72 (Summer 1993): 136–152. Mintz, Alex, and Michael D. Ward. “The Political Economy of Military Spending in Israel.” American Political Science Review 83 (June 1989): 521–533. Richardson, Lewis F. Arms and Insecurity: A Mathematical Study of the Causes and Origins of War. Pittsburgh: Boxwood, 1960. Singer, J. David, and Melvin Small. “Alliance Aggregation and the Onset of War 1815–1945.” In Quantitative International Politics: Insights and Evidence, edited by J. David Singer, 247–286. New York: Free Press, 1968. Smith, T. C. “Arms Race Instability and War.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 24 (June 1980): 253–284. Wallace, Michael. “Armaments and Escalation: Two Competing Hypotheses.” International Studies Quarterly 26 (March 1982): 37–56. Wright, Quincy. A Study of War. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1942. York, Herbert. Race to Oblivion. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1970. Zinnes, Dina A. “The Expression and Perception of Hostility in Pre-war Crisis: 1914.” In Quantitative International Politics: Insights and Evidence, edited by J. David Singer, 85–119. New York: Free Press, 1968.
Arnold, Thurman Wesley Thurman Arnold (1891–1969) was a lawyer, judge, law professor, political theorist, and assistant attorney general in charge of antitrust initiative in the Roosevelt administration. His two principal books are The Symbols of Government (1935) and The Folklore of Capitalism (1937). Arnold contends that humans are primarily irrational, governed not by reason but by the need to tell stories and cast people into familiar roles in order to make sense of the world. Successful political action requires discovering the folklore of a people (including ideas, symbols, and ceremonial action) and advocating change within its context, to make new ideas seem like the fulfillment of old promises. Arnold’s work is devoted to exposing the folklore that governed American life during the Great Depression (1929–1939), to pave the way for a new folklore that justified an American welfare state. Arnold’s theory focuses on the relationship between ideas and organizations. He argues that theory has no meaning apart from its attachment to organizations and that the primary purpose of theory is not to reflect truth but to provide morale. No organization can function for long without the legitimacy (and attendant morale) provided by its folklore. The ability of an organization to respond effectively to changing circumstances
depends on the flexibility of that folklore to respond to tensions between original purposes and new obligations. Sometimes the tension is reconciled through elaborate ceremonies (Arnold’s most famous detailed analysis of this is a look at the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890) or the creation of sub-rosa institutions to meet needs not legitimated under the dominant folklore (e.g., bootlegging during Prohibition in the 1920s). Substantive change is possible only in times of institutional collapse, and even then innovation must account for the existential authority of the old folklore. Arnold’s principal works analyze the folklore behind political governance (the U.S. Constitution) and economic governance (capitalism). In The Folklore of Capitalism, generally regarded as his most important work, Arnold’s central goal is to expose the business corporation in the United States as essentially a form of feudal government, a fact obscured by capitalist folklore. He accomplishes this through systematic analyses of the symbols of taxation, the personification of the corporation, and the nature of U.S. antitrust and corporate reorganization laws. Ultimately, Arnold attempts to justify an active welfare state and a regulatory apparatus that forces corporations to recognize their public obligations. Folklore paved the way for Arnold’s appointment in 1938 as assistant attorney general, in charge of the antitrust division. Arnold revolutionized the division, introducing new legal tactics and new ways of thinking about the role of trusts in American economic life. His goal was not to attack the size of corporations per se but the restraints of trade created by them that negated competition and harmed the consumer. Arnold enjoyed considerable success until the defense buildup during World War II (1939–1945) ended the political support for his initiatives. He resigned in 1943 and after a brief judgeship went on to found the law firm Arnold, Fortas & Porter. See also Antitrust Policy; New Deal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BRIAN STIPELMAN BIBLIOGRAPHY Arnold, Thurman. The Symbols of Government. New Haven, Conn.:Yale University Press, 1935. ———. The Folklore of Capitalism. New Haven, Conn.:Yale University Press, 1937. Reprint, Frederick, Md.: Beard Books, 2000.
Aron, Raymond Raymond-Claude-Ferdinand Aron (1905–1983) was a French scholar and journalist who, in postwar France, opposed the intellectual left. Aron, the son of Gustave Aron, a Jewish law professor, studied at the Ecole Normale Superieure (ENS), the French academy for teachers, from 1924 to 1928. In 1928 Aron had the highest score on the aggregation in philosophy (a competitive civil service examination offered in France). He was awarded a doctorate in 1930. In 1930,Aron went to Germany, where he was a lecturer at the University of Cologne until 1931 and a researcher from 1931 to 1933 at the Maison Academique in Berlin. He married Suzanne
84 Articles of Confederation Gauchon in 1933. Aron was awarded his doctorate during this time, completing his thesis on the philosophy of history. With the rise of Adolph Hitler and anti-Semitism in Germany, Aron returned to France. He became a philosophy professor at the Lycee of Le Havre. He returned to Paris in 1934, becoming the secretary at the Center of Social Documentation at the ENS. In 1939, Aron began teaching social philosophy at the University of Toulouse, but left to join the French Air Force when World War II (1939–1945) began. Following the fall of France in 1940, Aron escaped to London, where he became part of the Free French movement and the editor of their newspaper, La France Libre. He edited the paper until 1944. Following the liberation, Aron returned to France to teach sociology at the Ecole Nationale d’Administration (ENA) and the Paris Institute of Political Studies. In 1955 he became a professor of political science as a member of the Faculty of Letters at the Sorbonne, a post he held until 1968. He was an opponent of the French student movement of May 1968. In 1970 he became a professor of sociology at the College de France. In addition to his teaching, Aron became a columnist in 1947 for Le Figaro, a conservative daily newspaper. He wrote for the paper for thirty years, becoming one of the nation’s leading columnists. When the paper was purchased by Robert Hersant, a conservative newspaper publisher allied with French President Valery Giscard d’Estaing, Aron resigned. He moved to L’Express, a weekly news magazine, where he wrote columns from 1977 until his death. Aron’s scholarship was in the fields of economics, philosophy, political science, and sociology. He wrote more than forty books during his lifetime, in which he supported the classical liberal tradition of freedom and private property, challenging the views of those on the ideological left, especially those of his classmate at the ENS, Jean-Paul Sartre. In The Opium of the Intellectuals (published as L’opium des intellectuels in 1957), Aron’s thesis was that Marxism is a “mental opium” and was based on false myths. In particular he noted the Marxist belief that history was progressive and liberating, although the Marx-inspired Soviet regime was based on totalitarian controls. The second Marxist myth he challenged was the role that philosopher Karl Marx assigned to the proletariat—that of the saviors of humanity; Aron contended that all most workers wanted was a middle class (bourgeoisie) standard of living. Scholar Reed Davis notes that, in international relations, Aron subscribed to what he called “the idea of reason, an image of society that would truly be humanized.” Aron hoped that the possibility of nuclear war would lead to an end to power politics. See also French Political Thought; Marx, Karl; Marxism; Sartre, Jean-Paul. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JEFFREY KRAUS BIBLIOGRAPH Y Anderson, Brian C. Raymond Aron:The Recovery of the Political. Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1998.
Aron, Raymond. The Opium of the Intellectuals. London: Secker and Warburg, 1957. ———. Memoirs: Fifty Years of Political Reflection. Translated by George Holoch. New York: Holmes and Meier, 1990. Colquhoun, Robert. Raymond Aron. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage, 1986. Davis, Reed. “Liberalism and Cold War Diplomacy in the Thought of Raymond Aron.” Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Studies Association, March, 2006. Mahoney, Daniel J. The Liberal Political Science of Raymond Aron: A Critical Introduction. Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 1992.
Arrow’s Paradox See Voting Cycles and Arrow’s Paradox.
Articles of Confederation The Articles of Confederation were the original constitution of the United States and were developed and adopted during the conflict with Great Britain. In 1776, the delegates of the thirteen colonies met as a Continental Congress to adopt the Declaration of Independence and plan the Revolutionary War (1776–1783). Led by John Dickinson of Delaware and Pennsylvania, the Congress formed a committee to draft the articles that would guide the new nation. The document was ratified July 9, 1778, by ten of the original thirteen colonies. New Jersey later ratified the Articles of Confederation on November 26, 1778, and Delaware followed on February 23, 1779. Maryland ratified them two years later on March 1, 1781, after seeking concessions from several large states, including any claims on lands to Maryland’s west. With the Revolutionary War’s resolution in April 1783, numerous interest groups began to call for revision of the Articles. Article II included the foundational principle of the document: “Each state retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power, jurisdiction, and right, which is not by this Confederation expressly delegated to the United States, in Congress assembled.” The Articles, thus, granted the national government limited powers and made it fiscally dependent on the former colonies, now states, which also controlled the militia. The Articles constituted the U.S. Congress as a single branch of government, and each state selected congressional delegates, who voted as states, not as individuals. Measures needed nine of thirteen votes to pass Congress, but any fundamental alterations in national policy or changes to the Articles required a unanimous vote. Several attempts to change the Articles prior to the adoption of the new Constitution were prevented by a single state. The weak central government created under the Articles contributed to significant financial trouble for the new nation because states could not be compelled to pay their debts.Without necessary resources, the government could not address economic and military challenges—from the encroachments of the British on the borders set by the Treaty of Paris (1783) to those of the Spanish on the southern borders of the United States and raids by Native Americans on the western frontier. The United States also possessed only limited power to
Asian American Identity and Groups 85 regulate commerce and resolve tariff wars between the states. Inflation and an economic depression after the Revolutionary War led to new efforts to revise the Articles. In January 1786,Virginia called for a meeting of the states in Annapolis to discuss modifying the Articles, but only five states attended. In 1787, the Congress convened in Philadelphia to draft amendments. Only Rhode Island did not attend. After determining that the Articles of Confederation were insufficient for guiding the new nation, the Philadelphia convention proposed a new constitution, and a protracted struggle between Federalists and Anti-Federalists erupted. Ratification presented an early constitutional crisis for the new republic, but after extensive debate, the U.S. Constitution was adopted in 1787. See also Checks and Balances; Constitutions and Constitutionalism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MICHAEL W. HAIL BIBLIOGRAPH Y Articles of Confederation, n.d., www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/ar/91719.htm. Bloom, Allan, ed. Confronting the Constitution. Washington, D.C.: AEI Press, 1990. Bradford, Melvin E. Original Intentions: On the Making and Ratification of the United States Constitution. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1993. Jensen, Merrill. The Articles of Confederation: An Interpretation of the SocialConstitutional History of the American Revolution. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1970. McDonald, Forest. Novus Ordo Seclorum:The Intellectual Origins of the Constitution. Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1985.
Asian American Identity and Groups The term Asian American originated as a political statement. Inspired by other social movements of the era, activists of the late 1960s and early 1970s coined the term to reflect a new identity. An example of what Michael Omi and Howard Winant, in their 2007 work Racial Formation in the New Millennium, have labeled a racial formation, this Asian American identity was a declaration of self-determination and part of an effort to overcome oppression. The story of that identity is an ongoing one that can relay much about the power of race in the United States.
THE EMERGENCE OF AN ASIAN AMERICAN IDENTITY Americans with ancestral roots in Asia had often been called orientals, but there was little sense of a common—a panethnic—identity among them before the 1960s. In some cases, there had even been concerted efforts at ethnic “disidentification.” For instance, many Japanese Americans worked to disassociate themselves from Chinese Americans during intense anti-Chinese campaigns in the late nineteenth century, and many Chinese Americans returned the favor when public hatred of the Japanese reached a fever pitch during the 1940s. These efforts were to little avail, however. Although the initial restrictive immigration laws, such as the Chinese Exclusion Act (1882) had originally named specific nationalities, over time, all Americans of Asian ancestry found themselves the targets of discriminatory treatment.
Realizing this, 1960s activists began to call themselves Asian Americans. Because there had been little immigration from Asia for more than three decades, young adults were usually the grandchildren of immigrants, and for these third-generation youth, similarities between subgroups greatly overshadowed the differences. While those differences had been important to their immigrant grandparents, the younger generation had a very different frame of reference. For them, the “homeland” was the United States, where they experienced prejudice that did not distinguish between Asian subgroups. Japanese Americans, for example, subject to the derogatory term chinks (a slur at the Chinese) recognized that bigots cared little for ethnic distinctions. Many came to believe that Chinese, Japanese, Koreans, and others of Asian ancestry should emphasize a common, panethnic identity: Asian American. Superficially, Asian American resembled the older oriental category, but the differences were substantial. Oriental was little more than a descriptive category and had not served as a unifying idea that could draw individuals of different ancestries together. Asian American, on the other hand, was explicitly promoted as a collective identity, emphasizing the shared experiences and geographical roots experiences of all Asian-ancestry Americans. To proclaim an Asian American identity was to assert the power to define oneself, which many activists emphasized by calling theirs a “yellow power” movement. Although yellow power faded as a rallying cry, an Asian American identity spread rapidly.
THE NEW IMMIGRATION AND THE TRANSFORMATION OF ASIAN AMERICA As this new identity was growing, dramatic changes in immigration created new challenges. In 1965, the Hart-Celler Act repealed the national origins quotas that had greatly favored western and northern Europeans, replacing them with family reunification preferences that ended an era in which race served as a central component to immigration policy. This created much greater opportunity for Asian immigration, much of it coming from areas that had not previously sent large numbers to the United States. Wars in Korea and Southeast Asia also created connections through which increasing numbers of newcomers would move to the United States. The result was rapid growth and diversification of the Asian American population, so that by 2000, Japanese Americans, who had been the largest subgroup in 1970, had been surpassed by Chinese, Filipino, (Asian) Indian, Korean, and Vietnamese Americans. Asian Americans as a group had grown from less than 1 percent in 1970 to a little over 4 percent of the total population by 2000. Immigration also brought great socioeconomic diversity. From 50 to 60 percent of Cambodian, Hmong, and Laotian Americans had less than a high school diploma in 2000, while more than 40 percent of Chinese, Filipino, Indian, Japanese, and Korean Americans had a bachelor’s degree or higher, with the percentage reaching a stunning 64 percent for Asian Indians (in all cases, figures are for individuals twenty-five or older). Perhaps most importantly, immigration transformed the Asian American population into one that was predominantly
86 Asian Political Thought foreign-born—almost two-thirds, according to Census 2000. Thus, for a substantial number of Asian Americans, their sense of identity was likely to be shaped by experiences in another country. Third-generation Asian Americans, who were the driving force behind the creation of an Asian American identity, were by the mid-2000s a distinct minority. Can a panethnic identity survive in a population that does not have the shared experiences that characterized Asian America in the mid-1960s?
THE FUTURE OF AN ASIAN AMERICAN IDENTITY A common identity may survive, but not unchanged. The Pilot National Asian American Political Survey (PNAAPS) found that half or more of each Asian subgroup surveyed identified panethnically at times, but immigrants and their children were more likely to identify first in ethnic terms— such as being a Korean or a Vietnamese American. But, although they usually identified primarily in ethnic terms, around half of all PNAAPS respondents expressed a sense of linked fate—meaning what happens to other Asian American groups would affect them as well—and felt that Asian Americans shared a common culture. This sense of interconnected fates creates bonds that strengthen panethnic identification. Common problems can be more effectively combated when Asian American subgroups form a coalition, and a panethnic identity can make coalitionbuilding easier. Subgroups will not always coexist peacefully, but they sometimes will find it in their interest to join together. If the children and grandchildren of immigrants find growing acceptance in society, however, an Asian American identity may not take deep root. The more that Asian Americans can move into all ranks of society, the more likely it is that their ethnic or panethnic identity will recede in importance and become an option that they will exercise or ignore as they wish. If Asian Americans continue to be viewed as foreigners, however—even when their families have lived in the United States for three or more generations—they would have little choice but to embrace a separate identity. A strengthening Asian American panethnicity would be evidence that racial distinctions continue to carve deep divisions within American society. See also Coalition Formation; Identity, Politics of; Immigration, Effects on Intergroup Relations; Pan-ethnicity; Racial Discrimination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ANDREW L. AOKI BIBLIOGRAPH Y Espiritu,Yen Le. Asian American Panethnicity: Bridging Institutions and Identities. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992. Hing, Bill Ong. Making and Remaking Asian America through Immigration Policy, 1850–1990. Stanford, Conn.: Stanford University Press, 1993. Lien, Pei-et, M. Margaret Conway, and Janelle Wong. The Politics of Asian Americans: Diversity and Community. New York: Routledge, 2004. Omi, Michael, and Howard Winant. Racial Formation in the New Millenium, 3rd ed. New York: Routledge, 2007. Reeves, Terance J., and Claudette E. Bennett. “We the People: Asians in the United States.” Census 2000 Special Reports. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Census Bureau, 2004.
Asian Political Thought Asian political thought is political thought produced, shaped, and adapted to explain, justify, or reform political conditions within the cultures throughout Asia. These highly diverse traditions of political thought are contrasted with the rightsbased political thought associated with the traditions of classical and modern liberal thought that has its geographical center in western Europe and North America. Whereas the rights-based traditions of the Atlantic community tend to emphasize the individual, democracy, and economic liberty, Asian political thought is viewed to favor the community, rulership and guidance by spiritual or political elites, and social purposes over economic rights. The richness of both the Asian and Atlantic traditions makes these generalizations the target of scholarly and political criticism, but some political elites and political scientists have found these generalizations useful for political, research, or explanatory purposes. An understanding of what Asian political thought means for modern political science can be gathered by exploring the approach Western scholarship has taken to Asian political thought, surveying the religious traditions behind Asian political thought, examining the encounter of Asia with the West and the impact of Western dominance on Asian political thought, chronicling the Asian reaction to Western imperialism and decolonization, and assessing the impact of globalization on Asian political thought.
WESTERN ORIENTALISM Greek historian Herodotus made the first known mention of the continent of Asia in his writings. The Persians, the first Asians by this reckoning, were characterized as loving freedom too little in comparison with the Greeks. The general tone of Herodotus’ reflections would later reverberate throughout Western scholarship on Asia. The most notable thinkers who focused on Asia as a place lacking freedom were German philosophers Georg Friedrich Wilhelm Hegel and Karl Marx. Hegel viewed Asia as the place where only the despot was free. Marx identified the Asiatic mode of production as being a mode of production that differed from feudalism based on the centralized control of the modes of production associated with irrigation agriculture. German American historian Karl Auguste Wittfogel built upon Marx’s theory. Wittfogel argued that the bureaucracies that were essential to Asia’s irrigation works and managing large hydraulic works crushed civil society and resulted in a mode of government he called “oriental despotism.” He contended that modern communist societies followed the model of oriental despotism and would be even more repressive. Not all European understandings of Asian culture were so negative. Jesuit missionaries found much that was admirable in Chinese and Japanese society and tried to reconcile the secular religion of Confucianism with Christianity. The Vatican rejected these attempts; the Magisterium, the governing body of the Catholic Church, found ancestor worship to be incompatible with Christianity. The Catholic condemnation
Asian Political Thought 87 of Confucianism commended Confucianism to freethinking Enlightenment intellectuals such as German philosopher and mathematician Gottfried Leibniz and French writer Voltaire as a nontheocratic source of ethical behavior and social order. French physician and writer Francois Bernier found within the Chinese tradition a model of an ethically justifiable and practical absolutist government that resonated with the European practice of absolute monarchy exemplified by Louis XIV. Interestingly, Bernier, who spent time in the Mughal Empire, characterized India as a plurality of what would today be described as kleptocracies. Palestinian American literary critic Edward Said’s concept of orientalism addressed the tendency to idealize or demonize Asian societies. Said, a scholar focusing on western Asia, identified Western images of the Orient to be tools in an imperialistic project of domination. Owing much to French postmodernist philosopher Michel Foucault, Said saw the process of knowledge production as intimately related to the quest for power. The image of the other, from this perspective, may have very little to do with the reality of the other, but is instead a reflection of needs of the one creating the image. According to this view, the accumulation of knowledge of Western societies about Asia may tell us less about Asian political realities than the role Asia played for Western societies as an enemy or an idealized other. Bernard Lewis, a prominent scholar of western Asia who has been criticized as a practitioner of orientalism by Said, argues that Said is overblown in his characterization of Western efforts to produce knowledge about Asia as aiding and abetting imperialism. Instead of being rooted in the project of imperialism, the quest for knowledge about Asia is rooted in the project of humanism. A rejection of religious dogma lay at the foundation of humanism and opened the way to explore other cultures. Lewis characterizes Said’s efforts to bring into question the efforts of Westerners to understand other cultures as a form of intellectual protectionism that would reserve discourse about a culture to those within the boundaries of that culture alone. Some political science scholars such as Lucian Pye and Samuel Huntington have tried to use political culture as a means of explaining political behavior.These efforts have roots in the Western social science tradition beginning with German sociologist and political economist Max Weber’s analysis of how different religious belief systems would either hinder or facilitate the development of capitalism. Weber found both Hinduism and Confucianism to contain aspects that worked against the rationalization process necessary for the development of capitalism. From Weber and his intellectual heirs’ perspective, the ideas of a culture manifest themselves in the social psychology of a society and have serious impact on political and economic outcomes. For example, Pye has worked on a nuanced exploration of theories of power and authority to uncover how a preference for authoritarian government interacts with different family structures in various Asian cultures. From a similar perspective emphasizing culture, Huntington has attempted to develop a theory of global politics with civilizations at the
center of managing world order. Huntington’s thesis brings into doubt the universal validity of Western conceptions of human rights and democratic governance. Concerns about limited government and individual liberty are construed to be the product of a unique Western political heritage. In contrast to the line of reasoning pursued by the scholars mentioned above, Amartya Sen, an Indian Nobel Prize winner in economics, has been highly critical of the narratives that have associated Asian values with authoritarianism and Western civilization with freedom. He insists that a more careful examination of history will reveal lines of reasoning amicable with a universal value of freedom in Hindu, Buddhist, Confucian, and Islamic traditions. For Sen, universal values are possible, and Asian political thought is diverse enough that it is a misguided enterprise to characterize it as radically different from the political traditions of the West. Instead, Sen would have us seek the foundations of a universal ethic in the human quest for freedom.
THE ROOTS OF ASIAN ORDER Sen’s search for a universal ethic needs to contend with the great diversity of ontological and political assumptions contained within the traditions of Asian political thought. The briefest examinations of east, south, and west Asian thought reveal substantial differences in worldviews. Many scholars, such as Roger Ames and David Hall, view Chinese political thought as being radically immanent. This approach to politics puts a premium on maximizing the value of the constituent parts of a political community without a transcendent source of order or appraisal, such as a God separate from the cosmos. Confucianism, Taoism, and Legalism represent different ways of achieving political order within this radically immanent context. Confucianism emphasized rituals, relationships, and humanity as the source of social harmony and contended that the sage must widen the cosmos by realizing humanity through creative actions. Taoism took a critical stance toward the artificial order proposed by the Confucians and taught that a path of not-knowing and not-doing would better preserve a harmonious social balance. The legalists approached the problem of order from a less subtle approach to social harmony and argued for the judicious use of punishments and rewards to secure political order. Throughout Chinese history, a hybrid of Confucian and legalist principles dominated the massive bureaucracy put in place to administer the empire. Mandarins, scholarly elites selected through a competitive testing process, filled the positions of this bureaucracy from the Han Dynasty (206 BCE to 220 CE) down through the end of the Qing Dynasty (1644– 1912). The Confucian ideology also made inroads into Japan, Korea, and Vietnam, forming an important part of the intellectual superstructure of those societies up to the present. If the Chinese worldview is radically immanent, Hinduism can be appropriately classified as a radically transcendent worldview with some important consequences for the sociopolitical world. The Hindu faith focuses on the ultimate
88 Asian Political Thought
L. K. Advani, president of India’s Bharatiya Party, sits below a poster of the influential Bhagavad Gita. The ancient Hindu text serves as a foundation for political authority in Asian political thought, with its insistence that a ruler follow his or her duty wherever it leads. source: AP Images
purpose of human life as being the achievement of moksha, or liberation from an endless cycle of rebirths. Rebirths are caused by karma that will bring one either closer or farther away from this ultimate goal. Following the dharma (law) of one’s varna (caste)—whether Brahmins (priests), Kshastriyas (warriors and rulers), Vaishyas (merchants, artisans, and cultivators), or Sudras (workers)—is essential to making progress toward liberation. This transcendently grounded vision of Hinduism allowed for a highly realistic, power-centered approach to politics to emerge, exemplified by the political thinker Kautilya, the alleged author of the Arthashastra and adviser to Chandragupta, the founder of the Mauryan dynasty (322–185 BCE). Contemporaneous texts, such as the Bhagavad Gita, strengthened this bias by making it clear that a ruler must follow his duty wherever it leads him.This Hindu understanding of rulership spread
throughout Southeast Asia only to be blended with Buddhist and Islamic worldviews as a foundation for political authority. Buddhism, a reform movement within Hinduism that minimized the importance of the caste system and focused more intently on achieving liberation from suffering through enhancing awareness, was the vehicle by which Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Southeast Asian, and Tibetan civilizations were exposed to a radically transcendent vision of liberation. The Chinese would prove to be exceptionally adept at adapting this transcendent message for the purposes of meeting the demands of the immanent world through the Mahayana variation of the Buddha’s path. This tradition, unlike Theravada Buddhism that became prominent in Southeast Asia, down-played the other worldly aspects of Buddhism along with monasticism as the sole source of enlightenment and emphasized finding enlightenment in the here and now through living ordinary life. The Buddhist message proved to be attractive and found wide acceptance in Japan and Korea. By providing a comprehensive approach to deal with the suffering of individuals, Buddhism in its various guises played a powerful role as a tool for quelling the discontent that could cause social disorder. Unlike the Buddha’s path of liberation, an act of submission to a revealed authority grounds Islam. Muhammad, the seal of the prophets, disclosed through his actions, sayings, and recitation of God’s word revealed in the Quran, God’s will regarding the order of human community. The sharia, or Islamic law, spread itself through the swords and trade networks of the faithful. Revelation and the intimacy of God’s rulership of his followers offered clarity of insight into the divine will. This insight into the divine will made conflict with idolatrous communities a religious duty rather than a simple question of political and economic gain.The interpretation of God’s law is the core of Islamic political thought. The faith of Islam spread to South Asia and, through its encounter with the unyielding infidels, the Hindus, Islam learned a tolerance uncharacteristic of a purist application of God’s word. This tolerance facilitated the spread of Islam throughout Southeast Asia mostly through trade networks as opposed to the sword. Threats to Islamic and Hindu identities would result in a revival of conflicts as elites attempted to reassert their group’s cohesion. The interactions of Asian belief systems demonstrate both plasticity and form. The dynamism of this process makes it difficult to assess the potential of a thought system’s ability to yield solutions to any set of emerging political problems and makes the study of the political effects of these traditions highly dependent upon context. Sometimes a lack of attractive institutional structures opened the door for another worldview to expand its influence as the earlier Buddhist communities did against a relatively ossified Hinduism. Sometimes the failure to adjust to a changing environment resulted in the elimination of a political community and worldview, as was the case of the Buddhist community in India during the Islamic invasions. Authority, community, and creative responses to challenges were central to the spread and survival of Asian political traditions.
Asian Political Thought 89 ENCOUNTER WITH THE WEST AND WESTERN DOMINANCE As the European states reached out to Asia in the sixteenth century, they encountered a world of greater wealth, population, and resources than the world from which they came. Trading outposts and missionaries would play an important role in giving Europeans access to the markets of China, India, Japan, and Southeast Asia, and thereby to the center of global power at that time, even as the core civilizations of the region looked upon the Europeans as barbarians from the sea. Fragmented political organization allowed the Europeans to establish footholds throughout Asia, taking advantage of local rivalries as best they could. The Dutch established themselves in Indonesia; the Spanish established themselves in the Philippines; and the English, French, and Portuguese battled for influence in India. Dutch, English, and Portuguese interests initially penetrated Japan, but in response to a perceived threat from foreign powers, the Tokugawa Shogunate closed off contact with the European world with the exception of limited access for the Dutch. China’s great centralized bureaucracy effectively managed European relations on its own terms. By 1800, European states had substantial influence over 35 percent of the globe. By the beginning of the twentieth century, European powers had gained control of 85 percent of the globe, with only Ethiopia, Iran, Japan, Siam, Turkey, and the nations of North and South America retaining independence. Political and religious divisions within India eventually enabled the British to incorporate it into the British Empire by the time Queen Victoria became Empress of India in 1858. The French gained a dominant foothold in Indo-China by 1857. China’s defeat by the British in the Opium Wars (1839–1842 and 1856–1860) and the establishment of a series of unequal treaties combined with a series of internal crises such as the Taiping, Muslim, and Bandit rebellions weakened the Qing dynasty so substantially that the dynasty collapsed by 1911. In 1854, Japan was opened up to Western trade by the Black Ships of Commodore Matthew Perry of the United States and began a path of modernization that would enable it to join the European powers in the game of imperialism.
REACTION TO THE WEST AND THE SEARCH FOR A MODERN IDENTITY China’s reaction to the challenge of the West was slow. Traditional Confucian teachings prevailed through the 1860s. Success in subduing the major rebellions threatening the Qing dynasty supported a belief in the effectiveness and vitality of the received tradition. From the 1860s to the 1890s, China embraced a ti-yung reformism that emphasized preserving the essence (ti) of Chinese culture while using the contrivances (yung) of Western culture to strengthen the dynasty by building arsenals and railroads. The defeat by Japan in the Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) led to a movement focused on reinterpreting Chinese essence. Reformers such as Kang Youwei and his student, Liang Qichao, argued that the essence of Confucianism was the ability to manage change.
They led efforts to help China evolve into a constitutional monarchy, but an alliance of the empress dowager and a variety of conservative forces across the nation stopped these reform efforts. The revolution of 1911 overthrew the Qing Dynasty and ushered in an era that would reject Confucianism completely in favor of Western ideas.The writings of Lu Xun, which characterized Confucianism as a form of cannibalism and embraced an evolutionary metaphor, capture the rejection of tradition. In his political thought, revolutionary Chinese leader Sun Yat-sen attempted to implement principles of government based on such influences as Charles Darwin, the British Fabians, Alexander Hamilton, Henry George, Abraham Lincoln, Marxism, and a variety of other Western and non-Western resources as a means of resisting Western imperialism. A decidedly nonliberal view played a more important role in formulating the ideology that dominated China’s future. Marxist-Leninist thinkers such as Li Dazhao and Chen Duxiu played an important role in formulating this ideology. Japan embraced Western ideas more quickly than China. This embrace had much to do with the quick overthrow of the Tokugawa Shogunate and the restoration of the Emperor Meiji as the center of the Japanese state. Thinkers such as Fukuzawa Yukichi laid the foundation of Western learning, but practical political leaders would imitate Western constitutional, industrial, and military institutions to set Japan on the path of modernization. The Japanese defeat of Russia in the Russo-Japanese War in 1905 signaled to the colonized people of Asia that the Europeans were not invincible. Japan’s experiment with constitutional government wrestled unsuccessfully with military and industrial forces, setting the country on an ultranationalistic path. Kita Ikki, Okakura Kakuzo, and Shumei Okawa, as well as philosophers associated with the Kyoto school, framed this imperial path in terms of a Pan-Asian crusade against Western colonial powers. Japan’s efforts to build an Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere, a regional order with Japan replacing the European powers as the center of authority, ultimately failed as a function of its own colonial mismanagement and the superior industrial and military strength of its enemies. A constitution of American design implemented with a Japanese sensibility replaced the emperor system that blended the Japanese traditions of Confucianism, Shinto, and Zen, with extreme nationalism. English dominance of South Asia spawned a nationalist movement seeking to return to a genuinely Hindu identity. Figures in this movement included a wide range of political thinkers and actors such Vivekananda, Sri Aurobindo, Savarkar, Rabindranath Tagore, and Mohandas Gandhi.The nature of this identity varied according to its interpreter. Savarkar focused on the revival of the warrior spirit. Rabindranath Tagore advocated a cosmopolitanism rejecting all nationalisms. Gandhi embraced the doctrine of satyagraha, a nonviolent approach to overcoming injustice. Gandhi’s philosophy played a central role in securing India its independence from Great Britain. The separation from Great Britain did not separate South Asia from the political thought dominating Western political
90 Asian Political Thought discourse at that time. Jawaharlal Nehru, the first prime minister of India, embraced liberalism and socialism as a means of finding a way for his society to make progress. A commitment to humanism and science molded the secular state that Nehru played such an important role in constructing. Socialist theory similarly influenced the Muslim majority areas of South Asia, but Pakistan embraced firmly its Islamic identity instead of secularism. Islamic countries in Southeast Asia followed similar paths. Socialism had influence throughout the emancipating colonial world, but the more revolutionary ideology of MarxismLeninism took center stage in various civil wars and wars of liberation. The victory of the communists in the Chinese civil war (1945–1949) empowered Mao Zedong to become a leading Asian Marxist theorist. Mao embraced a political pragmatism that enabled him to move from a Stalinist approach to heavy industrialization to an anarchistic decentralization during the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976). Revolutionaries such as Cambodia’s Pol Pot, North Korea’s Kim Il Sung, and Vietnam’s Ho Chi Minh would wield Marxist concepts in a similarly creative fashion. These Marxist experiments to build new worlds had incredibly high human costs. Academic theorists throughout Asia embraced more nuanced Marxist lenses to examine the problem of underdevelopment in the non-Western world. Japanese scholars such as Otsuka Hisao and Uno Kozo developed the foundations of world systems theory independently and simultaneously with the Western scholars Andre Gunder Frank and Immanuel Wallerstein. Economic and political events weakened the intellectual attractiveness of Marxist thought throughout Asia. The economic success of states such as Hong Kong, Japan, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan, which embraced relatively liberal economic regimes, and the collapse of the socialist block in Europe raised serious questions about the effectiveness of socialism or Marxism to help developing countries to modernize. China and states in Southeast Asia began to experiment with market liberalization with positive effect. Though some of these states embraced democratization, China and Singapore, as well as others, remained skeptical about the value of the full range of civil liberties for social well-being.
GLOBALIZATION AND CONTEMPORARY CHALLENGES The end of the cold war opened up the world to greater economic, social, and political integration underneath the emerging liberal international order. Francis Fukuyama’s The End of History and the Last Man (1992) argued that the triumph of liberal democracy had ended the search for a comprehensive political ideology and, with that end, ushered in the final universal ideology. Doubts about the desirability of Western-style liberal democracy are the beginning of modern Asian political thought. Asian leaders such as Singapore’s first prime minister, Lee Kuan Yew; longtime Malaysian prime minister Mahathir Mohamad; Singapore scholar and diplomat Kishore Mahbubani; and others critiqued Western cultures as being
disrespectful of authority, destructive to the family, too contentious, too concerned about individual civil liberties and not concerned enough about the rights of the community, and too dismissive of the role of elites in creating the conditions that would serve the economic and cultural needs of the community. These critics believed Asian values could cure these Western maladies. The economic success of the East Asian Tigers (Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan), Japan, Thailand, and Malaysia made many in the West find much to admire in these Asian values. The Asian financial crisis of 1997 and 1998 revealed some of the weaknesses of the authority/family/community-based paradigm previously credited for the strength of Asian societies and economies. Concerns about cronyism, the stifling of innovation, and the inability of economies to respond to market conditions replaced previous admiration for social order, family values, and harmony. In recent years, strong economic growth rates in India and China and the need to provide social stability in the midst of economic development have led some to look to the traditional cultures of Asia as an anchor in a storm. China’s call for a “harmonious society” and its own “peaceful rise” in the global community most clearly owe a great deal to the traditional values of Confucianism.The role of Hindu nationalism in India, Buddhist nonviolence and social activism in Bhutan, Myanmar, Tibet, Thailand, and other historically Buddhist countries, and Islamic fundamentalism and the traditional and modern response to this phenomenon throughout Southeast Asia, just to name a few examples, make it evident that Asian political thought will continue to be an important and dynamic part of the Asian political landscape. It is also important to note that Western scholars are mining the political traditions of Asia for materials to deal with contemporary political problems. Roger Ames and David Hall find common ground between the Confucian tradition and the thought of the American pragmatist and progressive John Dewey to help further a universal democratic project. Peter Hershock looks inside the Buddhist tradition and demonstrates the relevance of the conceptions of karma and emptiness for a full spectrum of public policy problems. Daniel Bell explores the different meanings of human rights in a Western and east Asian context. Richard Nisbett examines the foundations for how Westerners and east Asians perceive the world differently. His work lends scientific credibility to those who discern profoundly different approaches to political and social problems in the various cultural regions—even as he affirms the possibility of the convergence of Western and Eastern values. Asian critics of the Asian values thesis, such as former South Korean president Kim Dae Jung and former Taiwan president, Lee Teng-hui, give credence to Nisbett’s hypothesis about convergence.These advocates of democracy perceive the Asian values argument as a means of attacking fundamental human rights and perceive these rights to exist in the broader intellectual heritages of their respective civilizations. Coming into this debate at the liberal end of liberal democracy, Chinese political
Asia Pacific Region Politics and Society 91 scientist Liu Junning perceives parallels between the Chinese philosophical tradition of Taoism and the Western classical liberal tradition. A growing classical liberal think-tank movement throughout the Asia Pacific region demonstrates the practical basis for such theoretical endeavors. Just as classical liberal ideas have Asian allies and advocates, progressive strains of Western thought focused on environmentalism and global justice find resonance among local activists such as Thai activist Sulak Sivaraksa, who argues that Buddhist ethical teachings require advocacy for the rights of indigenous peoples that are in alignment with these broader social movements. If the present multicultural intellectual climate is preserved, the cross-fertilization of political ideas likely will yield regionally interesting hybrids of Western and Asian political thought, even if it fails to produce a homogenous political thought grounded in a universal conception of human rights.
Mahbubani, Kishore. Can Asians Think? Understanding the Divide between East and West. Southroyalton,Vt.: Steerforth, 2002. Nisbett, Richard E. The Geography of Thought: How Asians and Westerners Think Differently . . . and Why. New York: Free Press, 2003. Pines,Yuri. Envisioning Eternal Empire: Chinese Political Thought of the Warring States Era. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2009. Pye, Lucian W. Asian Power and Politics:The Cultural Dimension of Authority. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1985. Sen, Amartya. Development as Freedom. New York: Anchor, 2000. Sharma, Jyotirmay. Hindutva: Exploring the Idea of Hindu Nationalism. New York: Penguin Global, 2004. Sivaraksa, Sulak. Conflict, Culture, and Change: Engaged Buddhism in a Globalizing World. Boston: Wisdom, 2005. Williams, David. Defending Japan’s Pacific War:The Kyoto School Philosophers and Post-White Power. New York: Routledge Courzon, 2004.
See also Asia Pacific Region Politics and Society; Buddhist Political Thought; Chinese Political Thought; Confucian Political Thought; Gandhism; Hindu Political Thought; Islamic Political Thought; Kautilya; Kita Ikki; Lu Xun; Oriental Despotism; Pye, Lucian; Satyagraha; Uno Kozo;Weber, Max.
Scholars have recognized that, despite free elections, leaders in new democracies may not be accountable to their citizens. One reason for this is that the state apparatus is difficult to control. Authoritarian rulers use bureaucracies to pursue their objectives. In doing so they create complex institutional structures that are not necessarily brought to heel once elections occur and new governments are in place. The transition to democracy thus also involves a complex struggle over controlling the state apparatus and thereby enhancing accountability. In posttransition Asia, politicians have chosen to pursue two primary types of proaccountability mechanisms, or reform paths: formalized/institutional and informal/social. The institutional mechanisms include laws such as Administrative Procedure Acts (APAs) that constrain the bureaucracy with various requirements when making policy, legislative oversight, and judiciaries. The social, societal, or informational mechanisms, in turn, include independent agencies, civil society organizations, and the media. At their core, each of these mechanisms is about sanctions. National legislatures in Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan, for example, have passed APAs to open up central bureaucracies and their policy-making processes by legalizing and formalizing accountability measures. In each case, in addition to APAs, the judiciary also plays a crucial role, as politicians can decentralize monitoring of the bureaucracy by using judicial review of administrative actions (i.e., giving citizens the right to sue). Another path that governments can take is increasing citizen participation through informal or social accountability mechanisms, through which citizens function as watchdogs, impose sanctions, and can even activate institutionalized punishment mechanisms. Interestingly, international organizations (IOs) such as the World Bank or foreign aid agencies such as U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) have often supported such measures, which coincide with general decentralization efforts. This entry presents the different ways that politicians try to restructure the state with the aim of increasing accountability. First the range of major mechanisms of control available to politicians, as discussed in the literature, is reviewed. Next comes
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TODD MYERS BIBLIOGRAPH Y Ames, Roger, and David Hall. The Democracy of the Dead: Dewey, Confucius, and the Hope for Democracy in China. Chicago: Open Court, 1999. Angle, Stephen C. Human Rights and Chinese Thought: A Cross-Cultural Inquiry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Aydin, Cemil. The Politics of Anti-Westernism in Asia:Visions of World Order in Pan-Islamic and Pan-Asian Thought. New York: Colombia University Press, 2007. Barlow, Tani E. New Asian Marxisms. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2002. Barr, Michael D. Cultural Politics and Asian Values:The Tepid War. London: Routledge, 2002. Bell, Daniel A. Beyond Liberal Democracy: Political Thinking for an East Asian Context. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2006. ———. China’s New Confucianism: Politics and Everyday Life in a Changing Society. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2008. Berger, Mark T. The Battle for Asia: From Decolonization to Globalization. London: Routledge, 2003. Bruun, Ole, and Michael Jacobsen, eds. Human Rights and Asian Values: Contesting National Identities and Cultural Representations in Asia. Richmond, U.K.: Curzon, 2000. Clarke, John James. Oriental Enlightenment:The Encounter between Asian and Western Thought. London: Routledge, 1997. Fukuyama, Francis. The End of History and the Last Man. New York: Free Press, 1992. Gress, Daniel. From Plato to NATO:The Idea of the West and Its Opponents. New York: Free Press, 1998. Heisig, James W, and John C. Maraldo, eds. Rude Awakenings: Zen, the Kyoto School, and the Question of Nationalism. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1995. Hershock, Peter. Buddhism in the Public Sphere: Reorienting Global Interdependence. New York: Routledge, 2006. Huntington, Samuel. The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1998. Jensen, Lionel M. Manufacturing Confucianism: Chinese Traditions and Universal Civilization. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press. Loy, David. A Buddhist History of the West: Studies in Lack. Albany: State University Press of New York, 2002.
Asia Pacific Region Politics and Society
92 Asia Pacific Region Politics and Society discussion of the trends in their use in Asia during the past two decades. Then the disparate research programs that constitute the literature on state accountability and democratization are synthesized into a more coherent framework. The goal is to clarify the relationships between the actors and link them to the types of control mechanisms chosen to increase accountability.
THE ASIAN EXPERIENCE Given the two main types of proaccountability measures— formalized/institutional and informal/social—where does Asia fit in? Asia is a fruitful region to study questions of accountability because the region includes states facing common problems unfolding within differing political institutional contexts. South Korea, for instance, had a large developmental state that had supported the maturation of the private sector, but at the expense of other concerns. Taiwan was similar to South Korea but with policies favoring a particular partisan constituent: the Kuomintang (KMT, the dominant party in Taiwan for fifty years until recently). The Philippines is somewhat different from either of these countries; even though its bureaucracy had been a source of patronage prior to transition, the executives continue to rely on it as a means of controlling their agents posttransition. What these three countries share in common is that leaders following democratic transitions faced a governance dilemma: how to rein in a central bureaucracy that had long favored a restricted set of interests? In all these cases, and as one can imagine in many other posttransition states, politicians face a similar problem of reorienting an entrenched bureaucracy. Thus, holding free and fair elections, while critical, only addresses the representation aspect of democracy but not necessarily the responsiveness aspect. After all, central bureaucracies are responsible for implementing laws that elected members of the legislature pass. From the recent experiences of states in Asia, it is apparent that some states have more options than others. The choice of which reform path to follow appears to rest on two factors: capacity and institutional openness. Tom Ginsburg (2001) observes that states with significant preexisting bureaucratic capacity, such as Japan and Korea, face a choice concerning the degree to which they want to open the bureaucracy. States without strong bureaucratic systems—that is, those lacking high-capacity bureaucracies—seem to have opted for decentralization. This option appears especially popular in assuaging fears of corruption and carryover from autocratic regimes, because it physically moves the location of much of the bureaucratic interaction. Additionally, states pursuing decentralization are able to exploit international organization involvement— especially the World Bank—to help with decentralization and increasing social accountability. The key cases of formal or institutional adopters are Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan. South Korea and Taiwan opened up their bureaucracies significantly, while Japan did so more modestly as a result of institutional constraints. The political tradeoff that these three states faced between more or less openness in an APA or Administrative Procedure Law (APL)
is very different from the challenges facing newly democratizing states such as the Indonesia and the Philippines. These states are more concerned with general governance issues. In cases like these, note Jose Edgardo Campos and Joel Hellman (2005), “the decision to decentralize is sparked by strong reactions to a prolonged period of highly authoritarian rule” (238). But what specific measures have states adopted? Table 1 summarizes the key example countries for each of the major categories. Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan represent cases of formal, institutionalized accountability measures (or “vertical” accountability). South Korea and Taiwan have formally opened their bureaucracies much more extensively than Japan, which has used the APL primarily to delegate some monitoring functions to the courts. Indonesia and the Philippines have both followed a path of decentralization and increasing social accountability measures, largely with the aid of the World Bank. The Philippines is further down this path, given the length of time since transition, but Indonesia appears to be following suit. It should be noted that in none of these cases are such measures fully effective at preventing politicians or bureaucrats from evading their intent. Perhaps it is inevitable that these measures will never live up to their full potential, but the amount of slack given and accepted is nonetheless noteworthy.
MINI COUNTRY REVIEWS The remainder of this entry briefly looks at the various mechanisms used in posttransition Asia to increase accountability. As noted, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan are the three best examples of heavily institutionalized mechanisms of control, whereas Indonesia and the Philippines, as well as India, to some extent, have followed a more decentralized, social accountability route, often with the help of organizations such as the World Bank. That said, it is important to bear in mind that even with laws on the books, some scholars remain skeptical about full implementation or full closure in all of these countries. THE PHILIPPINES
The Philippines is a good example of the range and variety of measures leaders may undertake. The overthrow of the Marcos dictatorship in 1986 led to a major push for decentralization of Filipino politics. In 1991, the state undertook massive decentralization aimed at moving government downward—to create “responsive and accountable local governance structures.” The government was not only responding to internal pressures for decentralization. The USAID also was pushing for decentralization in the Philippines, arguing that movement toward the local level is good for democracy. The World Bank also has been involved in supporting the use of the Citizen Report Card, as well as in promoting interaction and aid at the local level. It has identified local capacity building and performance monitoring as two areas of priority for its work at the local level. In addition to these shifts, the Filipino government has implemented informal/social accountability mechanisms at all
Asia Pacific Region Politics and Society 93 TABLE 1: MAJOR EXAMPLES OF TYPES OF ACCOUNTABILITY MEASURES IN ASIA FORMAL AND MORE OPEN
FORMAL AND LESS OPEN
DECENTRALIZED AND SOCIAL
South Korea, Taiwan
Japan
Philippines (early) Indonesia (late)
levels. Ombudsmen were introduced in 1994 and now exist at every level of local government. The key document in the Philippines is the Local Government Code of 1991. The intent of this document was to “break the self-perpetuating nature of centralized power” particularly after Marcos, notes Malcolm Russell-Einhorn (2007). Key formal accountability measures now include “right to information” provisions, rights of initiative and referendum, public hearings for key decisions, establishment of village development councils, and the right to petition to prioritize debate of legislation. Despite sweeping reforms—both formal and informal attempts to increase the informational mechanisms—followthrough has been incomplete. The statute is vague about how public hearings should be conducted and contains no provisions for notice of hearings. Local governments are not required to release information. In fact, many APAs fail to specify public notice and comment requirements. Russell-Einhorn (2007) writes that there are “local special bodies that serve as critical advisory groups on particular issues, including those dealing with health, public safety, education, infrastructure procurement, or local development. . . . These groups can propose, not approve or monitor initiatives or compel information” (217). That said, it is noteworthy that some scholars see “bureaucratic tradition” as limiting accountability throughout the region (including in Thailand and Indonesia). Like Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan, opening up the bureaucracy—particularly after a nondemocratic regime shored it up—is one of the key challenges in creating long-term accountability in many of new democracies, including the Philippines. INDONESIA
Indonesia has followed a similar, if more gradual, path as the Philippines. Emerging from authoritarian rule, it has sought to increase accountability by decentralizing. “Big Bang” decentralization began in 2001. This first round of decentralization included shifting control over civil servants to the local rather than central government. The World Bank has had a strong role in these efforts, particularly in promoting local and district involvement. For example, the World Bank is exploring a Justice for the Poor initiative, which is a decentralized, community participation approach, according to John Ackerman (2005, 44). Formal administrative procedures reform also has made headway recently in Indonesia. In April 2008, an expanded Freedom of Information Act passed and will be fully implemented by 2010.This law requires that bureaucratic institutions
make at least biannual public updates and promptly disseminate information relating to public order or services.The World Bank lobbied for this bill along with Indonesian civil society organizations. Other measures of note include anticorruption laws that, since 1998, have provided access to information and freedom of the press. As with the Philippines, there are active advocacy campaigns supported by IOs, but they are not yet as well developed, given the relatively short time since transition. THAILAND
Like many other states in Southeast Asia, Thailand had a long history of military authoritarianism. Observers saw the 1997 constitution as a chance to implement progressive reforms. Civil society groups played a role in drafting it, and accordingly constitutional provisions included seven new proaccountability institutions. These include creation of a National Counter Corruption Commission, independent electoral commission, ombudsman, constitutional court, administrative court, environmental review board, and consumer review board. Formal accountability measures include “right to information” provisions—sections 58 and 59 of the 1997 constitution. In addition to the 1997 changes, a Thai decentralization law passed in 1999. Although the government has been slow to implement this law, it formally calls for local collection of taxes, a major new provision. There are also questions about the potential vague or contradictory provisions of such local government laws, further hindering effective decentralized governance and accountability. While the hallmarks of the decentralized, social, and informational accountabilityoriented reform path are present in Thailand, as in the Philippines and Indonesia, bureaucratic traditions have proved difficult to break. INDIA
Like the Philippines, India’s accountability measures have been largely of the social and informational variety. Formal accountability measures include “right to information” provisions. Additionally, the Indian government has implemented accountability measures in a highly decentralized way. In 1992 and 1993, the Indian constitution was amended to create more levels of government, including at the federal, state, and municipal levels. Civil society groups have used this massive decentralization to bring government, as well as accountability measures, closer to the people. This said, there has been a major push within India to promote local and community involvement in policy as well as to work with nongovernmental organizations at those levels. Additionally, India is experimenting in some cities with using a World Bank Citizen Report Card. The initial city-level experiment involved Bangalore in 1994. Other accountability measures vary by state or even municipality. For example, Kerala has a program designed to empower local councils, based on highly participatory village-based planning, while Goa has adopted a much more liberal Right to Information Act.
94 Asia Pacific Region Politics and Society JAPAN
Japan’s accountability measures have been largely formal in nature. Japan recodified its APL in 1995 and 1997. This set up an Administrative Appeals Commission under the prime minister to handle nonjudicial appeals. These courts can revoke or alter administrative depositions but have rarely done so in practice. While a Japanese Freedom of Information Act exists, it has many loopholes and has thus proved largely “toothless,” observes Ginsburg (2002, 253–254). The Japanese case represents a very formalized system, but one that is used only at the behest of a strong ruling party.The dominance of the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) has provided little incentive to open up the policy-making process through open provisions as seen in the South Korean case or other, more decentralized regimes. Ginsburg (2001) finds that the Japanese bureaucracy after the APL has kept the policymaking process relatively closed but has lightened monitoring and control mechanisms by involving the courts more extensively. However, it appears that the courts see only the cases that are relatively less important to politicians. IO involvement in Japan is relatively limited in relation to its more decentralized neighbors (there are antibribery reports issued on Japan and South Korea by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development). This institutional reality—centralized LDP dominance—makes Japan a special case of formal accountability measures, in which politicians with unusually long time horizons do not see any advantage to opening up the bureaucracy or even to protecting themselves in times when they are out of office. SOUTH KOREA
Opening up South Korean bureaucracy and increasing accountability have followed a similar path as in Japan. Ginsburg (2001) notes that these reforms are seen partly as resulting from Japanese influence in general, and its recently adopted APL in particular, but also as a result of democratization and a desire for the bureaucracy to be more responsive to a broader set of interests. Specifically, in transitions in which the executive’s preferences are aligned with the status quo elements in the bureaucracy—as in South Korea and Taiwan initially—governments prefer continuity in structure and process and so opt for strengthening or maintaining executive control. But where the government is facing a bureaucracy with divergent preferences and has legislative support for reform, it chooses to attack these entrenched interests and achieve greater accountability with control mechanisms such as an APA. Unlike countries such as the Philippines and Thailand, South Korean reforms are primarily highly institutionalized, rather than being oriented toward decentralization and social accountability. The core reform law was the 1994 APA (amended in 1997) that restricted the bureaucracy’s discretion over the policy-making process. Administrative reform had been in the works for almost a decade, following a failed 1987 attempt at an APL. In 1994, South Korea passed a law creating an administrative appeals court. Then, in 1995, a reform to the 1994 law referred to the court all appeals against the
government and empowered it to “revoke or alter administrative dispositions as necessary” (Administrative Appeals Act, Article 6–2, in Ginsburg, 2001, 606). The South Korean APA requires advance public notice and comment, which opens up the policy process to those interests that have not been previously aligned with the ruling party. The 1996 Disclosure of Information Held by Public Authorities law, which is subject to judicial review, significantly opens up policy making. Through these and other related reforms, the South Korean bureaucracy and policy process have grown much more open and are subject to greater oversight by a wider range of actors, including courts and independent actors such as ombudsmen. TAIWAN
Like South Korea, Taiwan’s reforms have focused on formalizing institutional structures and processes for increasing accountability. Administrative reforms were driven by the need for the ruling party (the KMT) to change its image from one of entrenched corruption and favoritism toward wealthy private interests to one of “clean government.” To do so, the party had to rein in the very bureaucracy that had long served as the cornerstone of its power. Taiwan’s 1999 APA requires public notice and comment of all proposed regulations and that agencies investigate administrative action appeals and notify all relevant parties of their decisions. A Freedom of Information provision is another major feature of Taiwan’s APA. This requires that most agencies disclose information to the public upon request. The APA also allows formal adjudication, whereby parties have the right to present evidence and cross-examine witnesses at an oral hearing. Additionally, the 1994 amendments to the Administrative Litigation Law established an administrative court. Taiwan’s 1998 Administrative Litigation Act, in turn, allows judicial review of administrative actions.
CONCLUSION There seem to be two primary paths for increasing accountability in the Asian experience during the past twenty years. One path—followed by Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan—is highly institutionalized, although there is significant variation between these three cases. The Japanese bureaucracy is still relatively insulated compared with South Korea and Taiwan, but these three countries nonetheless contrast sharply with the more decentralized systems of Indonesia and the Philippines. IOs, particularly the World Bank, appear much more willing and able to assist with these more decentralized paths. The literature has tended to focus on one or the other path and variation within that path. Thus far largely unexplored are the equally important questions of why these appear to be substitutes and the conditions under which states select a particular set of tools. Are decentralization and social accountability chosen only out of necessity? Alternatively, if this proves to be a more common path outside of Asia, the question arises as to whether a “Japan” would ever choose such a path, and if so when? Is social accountability really a second choice, behind the more preferred alternative of an APA? Or is it more likely
Assassinations, Political 95 that these states prefer to pursue these types of “good governance” building measures and in doing so sometimes conclude that IO assistance (particularly World Bank) will ease some of their burden? Determining the circumstances under which states will opt for administrative reform, the path they will follow if they do pursue such reforms, and the particular tools they will select under different conditions all represent potentially fruitful avenues for future research. To some extent, time will tell about the progression of the decentralized cases. Accountability along the decentralization path appears to hinge on two factors: the effectiveness of decentralization and the strength of civil society groups, including those with IO assistance. Presumably increases in both of these should aid accountability, but in some countries this seems like a lot on which to hang one’s hat. See also Accountability; Centralization, Deconcentration, and Decentralization; Institutionalism, Comparative; International Organization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JEEYANG RHEE BAUM BIBLIOGRAPH Y Ackerman, John M. “Social Accountability for the Public Sector: A Conceptual Discussion.” In Social Development Paper 82. Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 2005. Baum, Jeeyang Rhee. “Presidents Have Problems Too: The Logic of Intrabranch Delegation in East Asia.” British Journal of Political Science 37, no. 4 (2007): 659–684. Baum, Jeeyang Rhee. Responsive Democracy: Increasing State Accountability in East Asia. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, forthcoming. Bennett, Colin J. “Understanding Ripple Effects: The Cross-national Adoption of Policy Instruments for Bureaucratic Accountability.” Governance: An International Journal of Policy and Administration 10, no. 3 (1997): 213–233. Campos, Jose Edgardo, and Joel S. Hellman. “Governance Gone Local: Does Decentralization Improve Accountability.” In East Asia Decentralizes: Making Local Government Work, 237–252. Washington, D.C.:World Bank, 2005. Geddes, Barbara. Politician’s Dilemma: Building State Capacity in Latin America. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994. Ginsburg, Tom. “Dismantling the ‘Developmental State’? Administrative Procedure Reform in Japan and Korea.” American Journal of Comparative Law 49, no. 4 (2001): 585–625. ———. “Comparative Administrative Procedure: Evidence from Northeast Asia.” Constitutional Political Economy 13, no. 3 (2002): 247–264. Goetz, Anne Marie, and John Gaventa. “Bringing Citizen Voice and Client Focus into Service Delivery.” Working Paper 138. Brighton, U.K.: Institute of Development Studies, 2001. Iszatt, Nina T. “Legislating for Citizens’ Participation in the Philippines.” LogoLink Report. Brighton, U.K.: Institute of Development Studies, July 2002. Kaufmann, Daniel. “Myths and Realities of Governance and Corruption.” In Global Competitiveness Report 2005–2006, 81–98. Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 2005. McGee, Rosemary. “Legal Frameworks for Citizen Participation: Synthesis Report.” LogoLink Report. Brighton, U.K.: Institute of Development Studies, 2003. Moreno, Erica, Brian F. Crisp, and Matthew Shugart. “The Accountability Deficit in Latin America.” In Democratic Accountability in Latin America, edited by Scott Mainwaring and Christopher Welna, 79–131. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003. O’Donnell, G. “Horizontal Accountability in New Democracies.” In The Self-Restraining State: Power and Accountability in New Democracies, edited
by Andreas Schedler, Larry Diamond, and Marc F. Plattner, 29–52. Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1999. ———. “Horizontal Accountability: The Legal Institutionalization of Mistrust.” In Democratic Accountability in Latin America, edited by Scott Mainwaring and Christopher Welna, 34–54. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003. Russell-Einhorn, Malcolm. “Legal and Institutional Frameworks Supporting Budgeting and Accountability in Service Delivery Performance.” In Performance Accountability and Combating Corruption, edited by Anwar Shah, 183–232. Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 2007. Smulovitz, Catalina, and Enrique Peruzzotti. “Societal and Horizontal Controls: Two Cases of a Fruitful Relationship.” In Democratic Accountability in Latin America, edited by Scott Mainwaring and Christopher Welna, 309–331. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003. Stokes, Susan. Mandates and Democracy: Neoliberalism by Surprise in Latin America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. ———. “Perverse Accountability: A Formal Model of Machine Politics with Evidence from Argentina.” American Political Science Review 99, no. 3 (2005): 315–325. Wolfe, Robert. “Regulatory Transparency, Developing Countries, and the Fate of the WTO.” Paper presented at the meeting of the International Studies Association, Portland, Ore., March 2003.
Assassinations, Political Political assassination involves the targeted killing of people, often but not always those who hold positions of political authority or political office.Typically, those who carry out such killings have a political or ideological motivation, although they range across the political spectrum, both right wing and left. While some assassination attempts have been carried out by individual sociopaths, the figure of the insane assassin has often been used to downplay or marginalize the larger political basis of the event. Political assassinations are directed or carried out also by members of states against civilians. The term assassin has its origins in a militant Islamic secret society, Hashshashin, active in the Middle East between the eighth and fourteenth centuries. Motivated by religious and political reasons, this Shiite sect killed members of the Sunni elite.The first organized group to systematically use murder as a political weapon, they also were feared by invading Crusaders. Assassination probably has always been a tool of politics. Among the earliest documented attempts is the attempted assassination of Chinese Emperor Qin Shi Huang around 210 BCE. The assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BCE stands as one of the most famous early recorded assassinations. The number of political assassinations grew with the emergence and development of the modern nation-state. In the early modern period in Russia, four emperors—Ivan VI, Peter III, Paul I, and Alexander II—were killed in a span of less two hundred years. Democratic regimes have experienced political assassinations as well as totalitarian regimes. In the United States, assassins killed four presidents—Abraham Lincoln, James Garfield, William McKinley, and John F. Kennedy—and made attempts to kill others. Political assassinations are often tactics used by insurgent groups that lack the means to challenge a state’s military apparatus. Groups that have used assassination as a tool in larger sociopolitical struggles in the late twentieth century include, the Provisional IRA (Irish Republican Army)
96 Assimilation since 1969, the leftist Red Brigades in Italy in the 1970s and 1980s, and Hezbollah. With the internationalization of politics, assassinations carried out for local reasons have had wide-ranging impacts. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by Serb nationalist Gavrilo Princip in 1914 is generally viewed as the spark that set off World War I (1914–1918). The assassination of Rwandan President Juvenal Habyarimana and Cyprien Ntaryamira, the Hutu president of Burundi, in 1994, their airplane shot down as it prepared to land in Kigali, is identified as the incident that launched the genocide in Rwanda. Activists also have been targets for political assassination. Human rights activist and philosopher of nonviolence, Mohandas Gandhi, was shot on January 30, 1948, by Nathuram Godse for seeking peace between Hindus and Muslims in India. Civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. was killed in 1968 by James Earl Ray while in Memphis to assist striking sanitation workers. King’s assassination, which was widely viewed as an attack on the civil rights movement as a whole, set off waves of rioting in several major American cities. During the 1970s, U.S. Senate hearings revealed that political assassinations against leftist and black power activists had been carried out by agents of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) as part of their counterintelligence program (COINTELPRO). Critics of state violence point out that more people have been killed through state actions than have been killed by nonstate assassins. Critics of states are certainly not lacking when it comes to martyrs. The Haymarket martyrs, Joe Hill, Frank Little, Gustav Landauer, Sacco and Vanzetti, the Kronstadt sailors, and the Maknovists of Ukraine are only a few of the poor and working-class victims of state violence. The administrations of U.S. presidents Bill Clinton and George W. Bush have sanctioned political assassinations, including against elected political leaders such as Mullah Omar. State-sanctioned assassinations have been cloaked in euphemisms such as targeted strikes or extrajudicial executions. Recent assassinations carried out by the U.S. government include the killing of Abu Musab al-Zarqawi and Sheikh Abd-al-Rahman by guided bombs against a so-called safe house outside of Baghdad. Assassinations have long been advocated by political theorists, including those whose works are still highly regarded. Sun Tzu argued, on military grounds, for the use of assassinations in his book The Art of War. In his classic of political theory, The Prince, Niccolò Machiavelli argued the utility of assassination. One of the most notorious treatises on political assassination comes from the anarchist Sergei Nechaev in his pamphlet Catechism of the Revolutionist. Nechaev’s work inspired Bolshevik leader Vladimr Lenin. Anarchism stands as the political philosophy most associated with advocacy of political assassination in part because of the theory of “propoganda of the deed” in which some anarchists proposed assassinations as means to inspire the exploited to mobilize against elites. Figures like Ravachol and Emile Henry during the nineteenth century and Leon Czolgosz, who assassinated President McKinley in 1901, are among the most famous anarchist assassins. In fact few
anarchists have even advocated violence. The characterization stems largely from the startling bombings and assassinations that arose from the despair of the 1890s. Many anarchists, such as Leo Tolstoy, have argued that political assassinations primarily serve to strengthen the state and provide a potent excuse for the state to increase repression and control of the population. Political assassinations, for Tolstoy, do little to inspire the people and represent little more than cutting off one of the hydra’s heads. A new leader always emerges to take the place of the one assassinated. ����������������������������� Niccolò;�������� NonvioSee also Anarchy; Coup d’Etat; Machiavelli, lence;Tolstoy, Leo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JEFFREY SHANTZ BIBLIOGRAPHY Gross, Michael L. Moral Dilemmas of Modern War:Torture, Assassination, and Blackmail in an Age of Asymmetric Conflict. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. Iqbal, Zaryab, and Christopher Zorn. “Sic Semper Tyrannis? Power, Repression, and Assassination since the Second World War.” The Journal of Politics 68 (2006): 489–501. Lentz, Harris M. Assassinations and Executions: An Encyclopedia of Political Violence, 1865–1986. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 1988. ———. Assassinations and Executions: An Encyclopedia of Political Violence, 1900 through 2000. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2002. Nelson, Michael. Guide to the Presidency. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2008. Snitch, Thomas H. “Terrorism and Political Assassinations: A Transnational Assessment, 1968–80.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 463 (September 1982): 54–68.
Assembly, Freedom of See Freedom of Assembly.
Assimilation Assimilation is the name of a process in which cultural minorities change their practices, values, or behavior in order to become more like members of the majority or dominant group among which they live. Assimilation may occur in the absence of state intervention, as the result of choices made by individual members of minority groups (albeit in a context where there are often benefits that accompany assimilation and that provide incentives to make that choice), or it may be a product of state policies that are specifically designed to bring it about; for example, when a state forbids the speaking of a minority language in schools. Assimilationist policies are often distinguished from integrationist policies or practices. Sometimes assimilation is regarded as a process in which minority cultural groups abandon all of their distinctive values and practices, in effect relinquishing their particular identities, while integration involves members of these groups merely giving up some of their particular values and practices to become more like members of the dominant group. Alternatively, integration may be viewed as a two-way process that, unlike assimilation, requires change on both sides. Whereas assimilation requires minority cultural groups to change their values, practices, or behaviors to fit in with those of the dominant group, integration involves a process of mutual adjustment.
Astell, Mary 97 An integrated society is in turn often contrasted with one in which different cultural groups lead parallel lives in the same society. So understood, integration requires members of different groups to come into meaningful contact with each other, to lead more of their lives together. This is sometimes an effort to promote community cohesion and greater trust between groups. A powerful argument in favor of assimilationist policies is that such policies may be required to foster a single, shared culture, and that a single, shared culture is either necessary for, or at least conducive to, the stability of a state. Theorists of nationalism have sometimes appealed to this idea to justify policies that are designed to promote a shared national identity among citizens and even to restrict immigration to prevent that identity from being eroded. Those on the left of the political spectrum also may have reason to value a shared national identity, for it has been argued that such an identity is important to secure widespread support for redistribution on grounds of social justice. Alternatively, a powerful argument against assimilationist policies is that they are either oppressive or counterproductive. Political theorist Iris Young (1990), for example, claims that assimilated groups suffer from cultural imperialism. When a policy of assimilation is pursued, the dominant cultural group will see themselves as objectively superior and cultural minorities will internalize a sense of inferiority.This argument may not always be successful, however. Assimilationist policies can be directed toward practices that are themselves oppressive, such as forced marriage and female genital mutilation. A policy of assimilation, however, need not be premised or implemented on the idea that the dominant culture is superior, and may be pursued through a range of initiatives that are not clearly oppressive. Examples include requiring immigrants to learn the language in which public affairs are conducted or requiring that state schools focus on the history, geography, and literature of the dominant group. See also Individual and Society; Segregation and Desegregation; Xenophobia;Young, Iris Marion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ANDREW D. MASON BIBLIOGRAPH Y Modood, T. Multiculturalism: A Civic Idea. Cambridge, U.K.: Polity Press, 2007. Young, Iris. Justice and the Politics of Difference. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1990.
Association, Freedom of See Freedom of Association.
Astell, Mary English philosopher, educator, and theologian, Mary Astell (1666–1713) was born in Newcastle, England, but moved to London when she was orphaned by the age of 18. When she was 23, William and Mary were crowned in England after the Glorious Revolution of 1688. Astell had been educated by her uncle, Ralph Astell, who influenced her royalist beliefs, and she remained a loyal Tory.
In London, Astell embarked on a career as a commissioned pamphleteer. Her entire body of work was condensed into an eleven-year period. Her early works are strongly polemical, expressing contempt for democracy, religious toleration, separation of church and state, and patriarchy. Astell has been identified as the “first English feminist,” one of her most quoted lines being “If all Men are born free, how is it that all Women are born slaves?” Astell believed that individuals of all classes should be educated beyond basic skills and that women need to find their own voices. Although critical of the theories of John Locke and leading Enlightenment figures who dominated the political thought of Europe, Astell extended those theories to women. She contended that women, like men, were both intelligent and rational and deserved the benefits of education. Astell’s views on the roles of women was highly influenced by the French salonnieres, particularly Madeleine de Scudery, and by French philosopher René Descartes. Believing that education was a viable alternative to what was doomed to be unhappy marriages, Astell argued that females should be trained to support themselves. In 1694, Astell articulated her evolving views in A Serious Proposal to the Ladies for the Advancement of the True and Greatest Interest by a Lover of Her Sex. The book presented Astell’s radical proposal that her wealthy friends finance the founding of a college for women. In 1697 she wrote A Serious Proposal to the Ladies for the Advancement of Their True Greatest Interest, recommending a religious order where women could retire to study and support one another without the permanent commitment of a nunnery. British writer Daniel Defoe was so taken with Astell’s proposal that he demanded that Parliament make it a felony for men to solicit women in these secluded areas. Astell’s proposal for higher education for women was received with skepticism, and she turned her attention to the Chelsea Charity School, created to educate the daughters of English veterans. She was particularly interested in educating orphans who needed to support themselves. Her involvement in this project continued until 1724. Astell was a devout Anglican. Her correspondence with John Norris, a prominent Platonic philosopher, was published in 1695 as Letters Concerning the Love of God. Astell and Norris both criticized what they viewed as John Locke’s rejection of religion. Astell’s theological views were further articulated in 1705 in The Christian Religion, As Profess’d by a Daughter of the Church of England. In 1700, Some Reflections upon Marriage, Occasion’d by the Duke and Duchess of Mazarine’s Case was published. Astell was interested not only in justifying the Duchess’s decision to leave her cruel and jealous husband but in pointing out that marriage was inherently unequal. Astell did not, however, exonerate women. She insisted that both sexes shared the blame for perpetuating the inequities. See also Education Policy; Enlightenment Political Thought; Feminism;Women’s Representation;Women’s Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . ELIZABETH RHOLETTER PURDY
98 Asylum Rights BIBLIOGRAPH Y Hill, Bridget, ed. The First English Feminist: Reflections upon Marriage and Other Writings by Mary Astell. Adlershot, U.K.: Gower, 1986. Hunt, Margaret, Margaret Jacob, Phyllis Mack, and Ruth Perry, eds. Women and the Enlightenment. New York: Haworth, 1984. Smith, Florence M. Mary Astell. New York: Columbia University Press, 1916. Springborg, Patricia. Mary Astell:Theorist of Freedom from Dominion. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Sutherland, Christine Mason. Eloquence of Mary Astell. Calgary, A.B.: University of Calgary, 2005.
Asylum Rights Asylum is protection offered by a government to persons who face persecution in their home country for reasons including race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion. It is possible to separate discussion of asylum rights from the question of international refugee protection. Such a distinction is, however, unhelpful, and modern analysis of asylum rights should be framed in the context of wider global refugee debates.The treatment of refugees and asylum-seekers has become a defining feature of the modern age. The protection and promotion of human rights have particular significance for these groups. While the concept of asylum has ancient origins, the right to seek asylum gained international recognition in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948. Article 14(1) provides that “everyone has the right to seek and to enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution.” The concept gained further acknowledgement in the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man 1948, the American Convention on Human Rights 1969, the Organisation for African Unity Convention on the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa 1969, the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights 1981, the Arab Charter on Human Rights 1984, and the European Union Charter of Fundamental Rights 2000. The right to seek asylum is to be found in a range of international instruments; the challenge is establishing whether refuge is in fact being provided. Possessing a right to seek asylum, or even a right to leave your country of origin, is important, but states remain firmly wedded to notion that granting entry is a foundational sovereign “right” of the state. The 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and the 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees are the legal instruments that have gained widespread acceptance in the international community. Provision is made for the definition of refugee, as well as protections and guarantees that attach to that status.The definition contains several elements. First, the person must be outside the country of origin and be unable or unwilling to avail of state protection. Those displaced within their own countries are therefore not refugees for convention purposes. Internally displaced persons can be particularly vulnerable (and are more numerous globally), yet in international legal terms they are not refugees. Second, the person must have a “well-founded fear of being persecuted.” This test combines the objective (well-founded) and the subjective (fear) with the prospective “being persecuted.” Many refugee determination systems are therefore concerned with establishing what might happen to the person upon return to the country of origin.This
is not enough to establish a claim to refugee status. The person must also demonstrate a fear of being persecuted for a reason stated in the convention: race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political opinion. Debate continues on these grounds, as well as how inclusively they should be interpreted. The 1951 Convention provides protections ranging from legal status and employment to housing and social security. The guarantee of particular significance is that of nonrefoulement, the prohibition of expulsion or return (Article 33(1)).The principal objective of refugees is not to be returned to face persecution, and this legal obligation is intended to reflect that fact.The obligation contained in the convention is not absolute and contains an exception that relates to security and those who have committed serious crimes. The 1951 Convention remains the cornerstone of international refugee protection. In terms of institutional protection, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) operates as the international “guardian” of refugee protection. UNHCR figures reveal 10.5 million refugees of concern to that organization, with more than 50 percent in Asia and 20 percent in Africa. The number of internally displaced persons is approximately double that, standing at twenty-six million in 2008 (UNHCR 2010). International human rights law, with its focus on the person, is of significance. Although the guarantees do not often refer expressly to this group, by implication they are applicable as human rights. For example, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 1966 and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 1966 contain important guarantees of relevance to any discussion of asylum rights. At the regional level, in Europe, the European Convention on Human Rights 1950 is notable. For example, Article 3 has evolved into an important guarantee against return of those who can show substantial grounds to believe there is a real risk they will be tortured or subjected to inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. National constitutional protections also will be of relevance in determining the rights asylum-seekers might avail of. The rights of refugees and asylum-seekers are now wellestablished in international law. The reality of refugee protection and asylum rights is often markedly different. The problem of effective implementation and enforcement remains, and negotiating the politics of asylum and human displacement is one of the most pressing challenges of our time. See also Ethnic Cleansing; Refugees; Religious Persecution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . COLIN HARVEY BIBLIOGRAPHY Harvey, Colin. “Dissident Voices: Refugees, Human Rights and Asylum in Europe.” Social and Legal Studies 9, no. 3 (2000): 367–396. ———. Seeking Asylum in the UK: Problems and Prospects. London: Butterworths, 2000. ———. “Refugees, Asylum Seekers the Rule of Law and Human Rights.” In The Unity of Public Law, edited by David Dyzenhaus, 201–224. Oxford, U.K.: Hart. 2004. Hathaway, James. The Rights of Refugees under International Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
Asymmetric Wars 99 Hathaway, James C., and Colin J. Harvey. “Framing Refugee Law in the New World Disorder.” Cornell International Law Journal 34, no. 2 (2001): 257–320. UNHCR: The UN Refugee Agency, 2010, www.unhcr.org.
Asymmetric Wars Asymmetric wars are historically armed conflicts in which one actor has significantly more power, usually a larger military or navy, which subsequently compels a weaker opponent to undertake unconventional strategies or tactics to overcome the quantitative or qualitative power deficit. Asymmetric wars were typically guerilla conflicts that emphasized the use of insurgent attacks to disrupt supply lines and weaken an enemy’s morale. Small groups would use the weapons or materials at hand to attempt to inflict the maximum political and military damage. Consequently, asymmetric warfare involves the use of limited resources to result in attacks or impacts that are largely out of proportion to the weapons used. In contemporary military doctrine, asymmetric warfare is defined as any conflict in which an actor seeks to exploit the weaknesses of an opponent by concentrating resources or weapons against vulnerabilities.
THE HISTORY OF ASYMMETRIC WARFARE Throughout history, people have reacted to invasion and occupation by powerful actors by engaging in armed insurrections and attacking outposts or by small deployments in battles in which the rebels could gain numeric equality, or even superiority. Such maneuvers came to be known as “hit-and-run” tactics. While asymmetric warfare is not synonymous with guerilla campaigns, insurgency groups typically used these tactics against occupying powers or domestic governments. Chinese author Sun Tzu wrote in the sixth century BCE about asymmetric wars in his classic treatise on military conflict, The Art of War. In the second century BCE, the Parthians used asymmetric warfare against the Seleucid Empire (and later the Romans). During the Middle Ages, Scottish knight and resistance leader William Wallace effectively combined guerilla tactics with conventional warfare against the English. After the Treaty of Westphalia (1648), nation-states gained a monopoly on the legitimate use of force, and the customs and rules of military conflict became increasingly formalized. Native Americans used asymmetric warfare against the better-armed European colonial forces, and their tactics were subsequently used by both sides during the French and Indian War (1754–1763) and by the Americans during the Revolutionary War (1775– 1783). In the Napoleonic Wars (1795–1815), small units of Anglo-Spanish forces conducted raids and attacks on French posts during the Peninsula Campaign, prompting the deployment of ever-larger numbers of troops. Through the imperial era of the 1800s, colonial forces endeavored to counter hit-and-run tactics by indigenous fighters through superior weapons, scorched-earth policies, and attrition. During the Second Boer War (1899–1902), the Boer conventional troops were initially defeated by the British,
but then launched a guerilla campaign with between twenty thousand and thirty thousand fighters, forcing the continued deployment of five hundred thousand imperial soldiers. Victory was achieved only through a ruthless strategy of concentration camps and destruction of crops. British adventurer, scholar, and soldier T. E. Lawrence popularized asymmetric war as a viable strategy against a conventional enemy during the Anglo-Arab campaign against the Ottoman Empire in World War I (1914–1918). The national liberation conflicts of the post–World War II era were mainly asymmetric wars, pitting insurgents using guerilla tactics against better armed and trained colonial conventional forces. Through the cold war, both superpowers supported subnational combatants in a series of proxy wars. During the Vietnam War (1961–1974), the U.S. military devoted considerable efforts to develop countermeasures against asymmetric tactics, with limited success. The Soviet Union likewise failed to counter an insurgency movement in Afghanistan during its occupation in the 1980s.
ASYMMETRIC WARFARE AND TERRORISM Terrorism evolved into the most substantial asymmetric threat in the 1990s and 2000s. A range of substate actors used political violence against civilian and military targets in low-intensity conflicts in areas such as Northern Ireland, Spain, and the Middle East. By the late 1990s, catastrophic attacks, including the 1998 twin bombings of U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania, attested to the growing capability of terrorist groups to inflict substantial damage to civilian targets (and were an extension of the main point of asymmetric wars, the targeting of the enemy’s greatest vulnerabilities). The September 11, 2001, al-Qaida attacks on the United States, which killed more than three thousand people, were the deadliest and most devastating strikes against the continental United States in recent history. The attacks demonstrated the ability of a small band to inflict major losses against a more powerful opponent by using materials often not perceived as weapons (hijackers turned aircraft into flying missiles that used the kinetic energy in the buildings to expand the devastation of the strikes). In Operation Enduring Freedom in 2001 and 2002, the U.S. military and its coalition partners used asymmetric warfare to defeat the Taliban regime in Afghanistan that had harbored the leadership of the al-Qaida network. Allied military forces used tactical air power and missile strikes, in combination with the indigenous anti-Taliban Northern Alliance, against the numerically superior Taliban conventional forces.The Taliban was overthrown after two months.The U.S.-led invasion of Iraq in 2003 employed a similar mix of precision-guided weaponry and an invasion force of 168,000 that was outnumbered by the defending Iraqi forces (more than 430,000 troops, including paramilitary forces, but not reserves). While the coalition quickly achieved a military victory, a widespread insurgency, combining both traditional hit-and-run tactics and terrorism, proved the continuing utility of asymmetric tactics against conventional forces. Other contemporary examples of asymmetric warfare include the tactics used by Hamas and Hezbollah against Israel or the attacks of Chechen rebels against Russian troops.
100 Atlantic Charter See also Insurgency; Insurrection and Insurgency; Terrorism, Political. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TOM LANSFORD BIBLIOGRAPH Y Arreguin-Toft, Ivan. How the Weak Win Wars: A Theory of Asymmetric Conflict. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Asprey, Robert B. War in the Shadows:The Guerilla in History. New York: William Morrow, 1994. Barnett, Roger W. Asymmetrical Warfare:Today’s Challenge to U.S. Military Power. Washington, D.C.: Brassey’s, 2003. Mack, Andrew J. R. “Why Big Nations Lose Small Wars: The Politics of Asymmetric Conflict.” World Politics 27 (January 1975): 175–200. Metz, Steven, and Douglas V. Johnson II. Asymmetry and U.S. Military Strategy: Definition, Background, and Strategic Concepts. Carlisle Barracks, Pa.: Strategic Studies Institute/U.S. Army War College, 2001.
Atlantic Charter The Atlantic Charter was an agreement by U.S. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill that set forth the two countries’ war aims and laid out their vision of a post–World War II world.The charter was drafted at the Atlantic Conference, a secret meeting held August 9 through 12, 1941, aboard two warships (HMS Prince of Wales and USS Augusta) anchored in Ship Harbour, Newfoundland, Canada. The secrecy was due to fears that German submarines would target Roosevelt and Churchill. The Atlantic Conference was the first of nine face-to-face meetings that the two leaders would have during World War II (1939–1945). Joining Roosevelt and Churchill were highranking government officials and military officers, who discussed military strategy and the challenges of supplying Great Britain under the Lend-Lease Act (Public Law 77–11).The law, enacted by Congress in March 1941, allowed the United States to transfer weapons to “any nation vital to the defense of the United States.” The Atlantic Charter was issued as a joint declaration by the two leaders on August 14, 1941, at a time when the British were fighting Nazi Germany and the United States was still neutral. A statement that accompanied the declaration noted that the leaders, have considered the dangers to world civilization arising from the policies of military domination by conquest upon which the Hitlerite government of Germany and other governments associated therewith have embarked, and have made clear the stress which their countries are respectively taking for their safety in the face of these dangers. The two nations agreed to eight common principles: (1) the United States and United Kingdom would not seek territorial gains from the war; (2) territorial changes would not take place that were not in accord with the wishes of the people affected; (3) people have the right to choose their form of government, and national sovereignty should be restored to those from which it was taken forcibly; (4) the lowering of trade barriers for all nations; (5) global collaboration to
secure improved labor standards, economic advancement, and social security; (6) freedom from fear and want; (7) freedom of travel on the high seas; and (8) aggressor nations should be disarmed and a “permanent system of general security” should be established. The principles were reminiscent of Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points and reflect the “four freedoms”—freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom from want, and freedom from fear—of President Roosevelt’s 1941 State of the Union address. In an August 21, 1941, message to Congress, Roosevelt asserted that “the declaration of principles at this time presents a goal which is worthwhile for our type of civilization to seek.” The Axis powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan) saw the charter as a potential alliance between the two nations. On September 24, 1941, the Soviet Union and the governments in exile of Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Greece, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Yugoslavia, and the Free French movement adopted the principles of the Atlantic Charter. In less than three months, following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the United States entered the war. The Atlantic Charter would serve as the basis for the establishment, after World War II, of the United Nations and the Bretton Woods agreements that created the International Monetary Fund and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. See also International Monetary Fund (IMF); United Nations (UN). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
JEFFREY KRAUS
BIBLIOGRAPHY Borgwardt, Elizabeth. A New Deal for the World: America’s Vision for Human Rights. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2005. Brinkley, Douglas, and David R. Facey-Crowther, eds. The Atlantic Charter. New York: St. Martin’s, 1994. Morton, H.V. Atlantic Meeting. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1943. Wilson, Theodore A. The First Summit; Roosevelt and Churchill at Placentia Bay 1941, rev. ed. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1991.
At-Large Elections In at-large elections, members are chosen to represent an entire political unit, as opposed to a single district or ward. At-large elections are most commonly used in the United States in local or regional balloting. Proponents of at-large balloting contend the system allows members to take a broader view of policy and not become tied to the narrow interests of a single ward or district. The system emerged in Great Britain in the eighteenth century, but was replaced by the use of single district voting in the 1800s in response to concerns over the capacity of at-large representatives to respond to constituent needs in individual districts and wards. In the United States, the system became widespread in the late 1800s as a progressive reform to reduce the power of corrupt political bosses. Later, during the civil rights movement, at-large systems were implemented in the Southern
Augustine of Hippo 101 States in an effort to reduce the political power of minority groups. A series of civil rights court cases and national legislation have significantly reduced the use of at-large balloting in America, while the system never gained widespread use outside of Great Britain and the United States. Today, at-large elections are used by only about 6 percent of democratic countries. See also Electoral Reform; Minority Representation; Representative Systems;Voting Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TOM LANSFORD
Attorney General The role of the attorney general is to provide legal expertise and support to the government. A number of nations, from Canada to Kenya, possess an office or ministry of the attorney general. The responsibilities and institutional constraints of these offices vary by country and political context. In some countries, the office is ministerial, dealing mainly with routine litigation, while in others it is much more politicized with a diverse array of functions. Most nations formally under British rule established an office of attorney general. Some countries codified the office in their constitutions or by statute, while others did not.There are also differences in terms of which branch of government the office is located in and the appointment process. In the United States, the attorney general is appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate. In contrast, the Canadian attorney general is a member of Parliament appointed by the prime minister. The office of attorney general has a long history that has roots in medieval England, when the “king’s attorney” represented the Crown’s interests in court. In 1472, the title of attorney general was used for the first time with the appointment of William Hussee, and in 1673 the attorney general became an official member of parliament in England. Before independence from Britain, each American colony had an attorney general who served as a liaison to the English attorney general. Their duties varied from colony to colony. The first recorded appointment to the office in America was Richard Lee of Virginia in 1643. The English established similar offices in other locations throughout the British Empire to serve the interests of the Crown. The office of attorney general is not explicitly discussed in the U.S. Constitution. It was established by the Judiciary Act of 1789 as part of the executive branch. Early in U.S. history, the office of attorney general was informally structured, low paying, and undemanding. Over the years the responsibilities of the office slowly increased. It was not until 1870, however, that Congress established the Department of Justice. As head of the department, the attorney general could better coordinate legal policy by overseeing governmental litigation. In the twentyfirst century, the U.S. attorney general administers the Department of Justice, represents the government, and offers advice on legal issues, as well as plays an important role consulting the president on judicial nominations.
The office of state attorney general in the United States is older than the national office. After independence, the office was incorporated into the new state governments. The state attorney general became the chief legal officer of the state, giving legal advice, drafting legislation, writing advisory opinions, and litigating causes that are in the public interest. Through multistate litigation and filing amicus curiae briefs in federal court, state attorneys general have been able to shape and refine national domestic policy. Also, the definition of what is in a state’s interest has expanded significantly, allowing state attorneys general to influence policy on issues ranging from environmental pollution to consumer protection. The office of attorney general, at both the state and national level, plays a critical role in the U.S. government. As the country has grown, the attorney general has been delegated more responsibilities and functions. In turn, these changes have increased the office’s prominence and policy-making potential. The policy-making potential of the office has become more salient in other countries as well. In some nations, individual attorneys general have begun to conceptualize their role more expansively.This may lead to a new public and scholarly interest in attorneys general as political actors. See also Law and Society; Legislature-court Relations; Rule of Law; Supreme Court. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ADAM W. NYE BIBLIOGRAPHY Bellot, Hugh H. L. “The Origin of the Attorney-General.” Law Quarterly Review 25 (1909): 400–411. Clayton, Cornell W. The Politics of Justice:The Attorney General and Making of Legal Policy. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1992. ———. “Law Politics and the New Federalism: State Attorneys General as Policymakers.” Review of Politics 56, no. 3 (1994): 525–554. Meador, Daniel J. The President, the Attorney General, and the Department of Justice. Charlottesville,Va.:White Burkett Miller Center of Public Affairs, 1980. Provost, Colin. “State Attorneys General, Entrepreneurship, and Consumer Protection in the New Federalism.” Publius 33, no. 2 (2003): 37–53. Ross, Lynne M., ed. State Attorneys General: Powers and Responsibilities. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of National Affairs, 1990. Scott, Ian. “Law, Policy, and the Role of the Attorney General: Constancy and Change in the 1980s.” University of Toronto Law Journal 39, no. 2 (1989): 109–126.
Auditing See Program Evaluation and Auditing.
Augustine of Hippo Aurelius Augustine (354–430), or Saint Augustine, was a theologian and father of the Christian church. His autobiographical Confessions (c. 397) and City of God against the Pagans (413–427) shaped medieval European ideas about political order, freedom, soul, inner life, will, sin, evil, just war, history, time, religion, immortality, love, and God. His thought is influential across all Christian denominations, especially perhaps Calvinism, and extends into the contemporary age even among secular thinkers. Examples of his influence include French philosopher René Descartes’ meditations, the
102 Australian Ballot express imitation of Augustine used by French thinker JeanJacques Rousseau in formulating his own Confessions (1782), the Augustinian overtones in French political philosopher Alexis de Tocqueville’s diagnosis of the democratic soul, and German-Jewish political theorist Hannah Arendt’s understanding of the “banality of evil” and of natality. Augustine was born in the North African town of Thagaste. At age sixteen he was sent to Carthage for a liberal arts education, which included rhetoric. At eighteen he read ancient Roman philosopher Marcus Tullius Cicero’s now-lost work, Hortensius, and the evocation of wisdom contained in the text converted Augustine to philosophy. He joined the Manichean sect but eventually left them on account of their lack of philosophical rigor and their understanding of evil as a substance. Augustine famously argued evil is instead a deficient cause. He moved to Rome, Italy, where he embarked on a career teaching rhetoric.There he met Ambrose, the bishop of Milan, and discovered the books of the Platonists. Platonism enabled Augustine to understand scripture, as conveyed through Ambrose’s sermons, in their allegorical as well as literal senses. He no longer considered scripture as simplistic and converted to Christianity in 386. In 388 Augustine returned to North Africa and became bishop of Hippo in 395. During this time, civil wars convulsed the Roman Empire. Imperial authorities had been enforcing religious conformity as a means of preserving political unity since the Theodosian Code (a legal code) began to be compiled in 312. Augustine was drawn into a conflict between Christians and Donatists, a kind of Puritan sect, which frequently took violent form. He at first opposed banning the Donatists but in 411 changed his mind. Augustine’s justification of the coercion of heretics has led many commentators to regard him as the Inquisition’s first theorist, though more recent scholarship has shown that Augustine considered his decision a prudent response to an emergency situation in which the line between a religious sect and its violent political wing became blurred. In addition, Augustine thought only Donatist bishops should be arrested and that violence should be punished by beatings with wooden rods, the punishment that teachers of the day meted out to students, instead of the death penalty or beatings by iron rods as required by the Theodosian Code. Alaric, the Visigoth king, entered Rome in 410, which prompted Roman aristocrats to blame Rome’s collapse on Christians whose humility undermined the courage and allegiance to the fatherland. In response, Augustine argued in City of God that Christianity better protects civic virtue because of the importance it places on faith and justice, instead of the “noble lie” of antiquity. Politics not guided by genuine virtue, rooted in faith, is governed by the lust of domination (libido dominandi), which was the real cause of political ruin, including that of Rome. The contrast between faith and libido dominandi marks the difference between the symbols of the city of God and the earthly city. The theme of the two cities asks whether political society is something sacred, something profane, or some intermingling of the two. This is also the central
question of contemporary politics when the appropriate relationship of religion and politics is considered, and the degree to which communities of faith can share the same political principles with those outside their communities. See also Arendt, Hannah; Cicero, Marcus Tullius; Just War Theory; Reformation Political Thought; Religion and Politics; Rousseau, Jean-Jacques;Thomas Aquinas;Tocqueville, Alexis de. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JOHN VON HEYKING BIBLIOGRAPHY Augustine. Confessions, translated by F. J. Sheed. Indianapolis: Hackett, 1970. Augustine. City of God against the Pagans, translated by R. W. Dyson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998. Arendt, Hannah. Love and Saint Augustine, edited by Joanna Vecchiarelli Scott and Judith Chelius Stark. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996. Brown, Peter. Augustine of Hippo, rev. ed. London: Faber and Faber, 2000. Elshtain, Jean Bethke. Augustine and the Limits of Politics. Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1995. Fitzgerald, Allan D., ed. Augustine through the Ages: An Encyclopedia. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1999. Heyking, John von. Augustine and Politics as Longing in the World. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2001.
Australian Ballot The Australian Ballot is one form of the secret ballot, a method of voting where the voter’s choices are confidential. The purpose of the secret ballot is to ensure that voters will not be subjected to undue influence, as their vote will not be known to anyone else. This voting method is known as the Australian Ballot because it originated in Australia during the 1850s. With this particular ballot, all candidate names are preprinted on a ballot provided by the government and given to the voter at the poll site. The voters then fill out their ballot in private. In the United States, prior to the introduction of the Australian ballot, political parties and others would print ballots and distribute them to voters. In Great Britain and Australia, voters would hand in signed voting papers indicating their choice and their own name and address. The open vote made it possible to determine how voters cast their ballots, subjecting voters to bribery or intimidation.
INTRODUCTION OF THE AUSTRALIAN BALLOT The introduction of the secret ballot was influenced by Chartism, a British working-class movement that advocated secret ballot elections. John Basson Humffray, a native of Wales and a member of the Chartist movement, moved to Victoria in Australia, where he became the leader of the Ballarat Reform League, an organization established to protest the colonial government’s treatment of gold miners. One of the league’s demands was the introduction of the secret ballot. Following an armed rebellion, the demands of the miners, including the call for the secret ballot, would soon me met. The secret ballot was first adopted in Victoria, Australia, in December 1855, when the colony’s Legislative Council agreed to include the secret ballot in the new self-governing colony’s
Authoritarianism, African 103 election law. Henry Samuel Chapman devised the system of the government-printed ballot, whose use spread across Australia over the next two decades. The Australian ballot would be adopted in New Zealand (1870), Great Britain (1872), Canada (1874), and Belgium (1877). By 1896, all but four American states had introduced the Australian system (Brent 2005, 9). See also Ballot Design; Election Monitoring; Electoral Reform; Electoral Rules; Electoral Systems; Electronic Voting;Voting Machines and Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JEFFREY KRAUS BIBLIOGRAPH Y Brent, Peter. “The Secret Ballot—Not an Australian First.” 2005, www.enrollingthepeople.com. Fredman, Lionel E. The Australian Ballot:The Story of an American Reform. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1958. Wigmore, John Henry. The Australian Ballot Systen as Embodied in the Legislation of Various Countries. Boston: C.C. Soule, 1889.
Autarky Autarky means self-sufficiency, or nonattachment, especially in relation to economics. In economic literature it refers to a closed economy. The term should not be confused with autarchia, which is the act of self-ruling. Autarky is understood both as a theoretical construct of comparative advantage and as economic self-sufficiency. Autarky is a foundational concept in the doctrine of comparative advantage. David Ricardo sought to enhance Adam Smith’s theory of absolute advantage by means of the principle of comparative advantage and trade that Robert Torrens originated. Ricardo thereby introduced into economic literature the theory of comparative cost advantage in international trade. For the purpose of independence from international influence, autarkic countries should be self-sufficient and not engaged in international trade. Historical examples of autarky just prior to the beginning of World War II (1939–1945) include Fascist Italy when the League of Nations sanctioned an embargo, Hitler’s expressed desire for Germany in the Hossbach Memorandum, and Spain following an Allied embargo subsequent to its civil war. Autarky, however, is quite rare in the current age. China is an example of a country that pursued a policy of almost entire autarky until recently, and it was not until the 1970s that India began the process of eliminating powerful trade barriers. Even North Korea, which is perhaps the only current autarky, practices some trade with China and Japan. Modern countries that have pursued autarky through the substitution of domestic production for imports have reduced themselves to inefficiency and poverty, compared to those countries that are competitive in foreign trade. The population demand for production of a full range of goods at competitive prices is impossible to be achieved by any country. It is because trade is beneficial to society that higher commodity prices do not eliminate the doctrine of comparative advantage.
See also Free Trade; Sanctions and Embargoes;Trade Diplomacy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RON J. BIGALKE JR. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bardhan, Pranab K. Economic Growth, Development and Foreign Trade: A Study in Pure Theory. New York: Wiley, 1970. Dobb, Maurice H. Theories of Value and Distribution since Adam Smith. London: Cambridge University Press, 1973. Jones, Ronald W., and Peter B. Kenen, eds. Handbook of International Economics, vol. 1. Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1984. Seers, Dudley, ed. Dependency Theory: A Critical Assessment. London: Frances Pinter, 1981. Steedman, Ian, ed. Fundamental Issues in Trade Theory. London: Macmillan, 1979.
Authoritarianism, African Authoritarianism is a form of political governance in which a ruler exercises absolute control over a state or group of people with the ultimate goal being preservation of power. In Africa, in addition to the elected presidents who have usurped power and turned themselves into presidents for life, military dictators are another category of authoritarians. Wherever military coups have occurred and a military oligarchy (junta) has taken power, a strong autocrat has always managed to emerge with the help of supportive military forces. Three such cases are those of President Muammar Qaddafi of Libya (1969 to present), former strongman Idi Amin Dada of Uganda (1971–1979), and former president Jerry Rawlings of Ghana (1979–2000). This prevailing style of autocracy has earned African authoritarianism the alternative title of personal rule. While authoritarianism can take many different forms, African authoritarianism has three main characteristics. The first is a high level of violence and political intimidation against perceived opponents of the regime.Visible proof here is the openly meted police brutality against perceived opposition. A related element is the denial of government services and constitutionally guaranteed rights to those seen as opposing the regime. The second distinctive feature is a high level of embedment in the existing social and cultural environment. The third is a remarkably low appeal to ideology. African authoritarian rulers have sought to portray themselves as cultural icons and to embed their governments in preexisting cultural structures. At the height of his authoritarian rule, former president Daniel arap Moi of Kenya (1978–2002) sought to apply the “Nyayo” philosophy of peace, love, and unity as a tool for mobilization of the masses. Beyond rallying around the ruling KANU party however, what most legitimatized his authority to the masses was his appeal to the African traditional custom of respect for elders. Posing as a traditional African elder, complete with the title mzee (Swahili for elder), Moi was able to put in place a formidable patron-client system that strongly legitimized his position and brought him support, even in the face of increasing international pressure and a budding political opposition to his rule. President Moi’s predecessor, President Jomo Kenyatta, served for more than 14 years as a patron to various localized constituencies, including ethnic groups and
104 Authority women’s organizations. In Libya, Muammar Qaddafi has successfully appealed to his country’s strong Islamic background and has held on to power by portraying himself as one of the respected Islamic prophets. Although the development of authoritarianism in modern African states can partly be traced back to the colonial administrations that preceded them and whose structures they inherited, it can be argued that African authoritarianism preceded European colonialism. Precolonial Africa had a fair share of authoritarian rulers like Shaka, head of the Zulu people. In essence, what European colonialism did was to introduce more political structures to endow the practice of authoritarianism. Such emergent political structures include restrictive economic and political structures, easy to manipulate court systems, a rubber-stamping legislature essential for legitimizing the actions of an authoritarian leader, and even a structured bureaucracy that could be employed to enforce the whims of the authoritarian ruler. Further, ensuing tribalism as a result of colonial divideand-rule strategies helped enhance the role of modern African authoritarian rulers as defenders and all-able benefactors of their people, regardless of constitutional stipulations. Through a combination of hero worship, open nepotism, and corruption using the resources of the state, a formidable system of client-patron relationships has taken shape in many African states. In so doing, the authoritarian rulers have become strongly entrenched in government. A distinct outcome of African authoritarianism in almost all cases has been the deterioration of African economies, given the state’s incompetence and heightened corruption that breeds restrictive monopolies to benefit the elite. Despite the continent’s abundance of natural resources, noticeably few African countries can claim a plausible takeoff in industrialization. African authoritarian rulers and their henchmen have repeatedly stolen their countries’ resources and turned them into personal property, to the detriment of their people. A case in point is the late Mobutu Sésé Seko of the Democratic Republic of Congo (formerly Zaire) who presided over the historical looting of his country’s natural resources and who became one of the richest men on the continent at a time when extreme poverty continued to ravage his country. Agriculture, which is the backbone for many African economies, has suffered also due to neglect and exploitation of the mostly subsistent farmers based in the rural areas. With no reliable means of income, many in the continent have sunk to unprecedented levels of poverty. While President Robert Mugabe’s country of Zimbabwe was once considered to be Africa’s most successful agricultural state, more than twentyeight years of Mugabe’s authoritarian rule, and a no-holdsbarred approach to preservation of his power by eliminating any source of organized opposition, has left the country dilapidated and scrounging for food, amid high levels of poverty. See also African Political Thought; African Politics and Society: Postindependent Africa, Politics and Governence in. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HENRY KIRAGU WAMBUII
BIBLIOGRAPHY Ayittey, George B. N. Africa Betrayed. New York: St. Martin’s, 1992. N’Diaye, Boubacar, Abdoulaye Saine, and Mathurin Houngnikpo. Not Yet Democracy:West Africa’s Slow Farewell to Authoritarianism. Durham, N.C.: Carolina Academic Press, 2005. Schraeder, Peter J. African Politics and Society: A Mosaic in Transformation. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2000. Tordoff, William. Government and Politics in Africa, 4th ed. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002.
Authoritarianism, Bureaucratic See Bureaucratic Authoriatarianism.
Authority Defining political authority is a useful exercise for it raises the central problems of political theory. There is therefore no easy way to discuss authority without encountering important controversy. Rather than supply a settled definition of authority, what follows discusses the central questions that such an attempt inevitably raises.
DEFINING POLITICS To understand political authority, it is necessary first to try to define politics. The most influential modern definition described the modern state as “a human community that (successfully) claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory” (Weber 2004). Weber sought to define politics in a purely descriptive, value-free manner. Notice that the state has authority not just because it has a monopoly of violence, but because its monopoly is claimed, successfully, to be legitimate. There seems to be a difference, intuited by most, between genuine authority and mere force. Where genuine authority obliges us, force alone merely compels. But what adds legitimacy to force, and turns it into authority? What’s the difference between authoritative force and merely successful force? Weber abstains from giving legitimacy value-content. Legitimacy may be viewed in many ways, but the state, as a state, is successful in advancing its claim to it, whatever that claim may be. Legitimate force is force that has succeeded in advancing its claim to legitimacy.This applies, therefore, to force that has merely succeeded in controlling minds as well as bodies. But this means that, in Weber’s terms, authority is power, or rather, that there is no intelligible content to authority, if by authority we seek something other than power that has managed to mobilize or indoctrinate.
AUTHORITY AND JUSTICE To understand authority beyond mere power, we enter the world of normative political theory. If we try to avoid normative issues by defining authority in terms of a political process, we are faced with having to ground our choice of process. Do we require that authority be legitimated by democratic, rather than nondemocratic processes? Why? We immediately find a value-judgment, a view of justice, operating as a hidden premise: Authority must be democratic, for democracy is just. Claims about what counts as genuine authority are conceptually inseparable from claims about justice.
Authority 105 To investigate authority is to investigate justice, about which there is a distinguished history of ideas. Rather than attempt a survey here, it may be useful to suggest, as a preview of such a survey, one point of comparison that sheds light on the question of authority. The following presentation is meant to be highly provisional, an invitation to first steps. Arguments about justice, and therefore genuine authority, are often grounded in assertions about the purpose of government. Justice means accomplishing a particular end, which then defines the nature of authority and its limits. For example, the purpose of Socrates’ utopian city in The Republic appears to be the greatest possible fulfillment of the basic human types consistent with the greatest possible harmony of the types with each other. To create and manage a city that accomplishes this, he argues, a ruler is needed who has the greatest possible wisdom about human types, their fulfillment and education, and their relations to each other.This ruler also needs tremendous power in the areas of education and procreation. True authority, then, has to combine these particular powers with this particular wisdom: a philosopher-king. Both his particular wisdom (about the human good) and these particular powers (to turn individuals into harmonious fellow citizens) are necessary to achieve the city’s purpose, which defines justice. Only this union of power and wisdom then, embodied in a philosopher-king, has genuine authority. It is precisely in the avowed unlikelihood of such a union that Plato’s subtle subversion of all actual political authority consists.
authority is justly limited, because the purpose of government makes such limits necessary. Should government overstep those limits, it oversteps its authority, because in overstepping its limits it vitiates the purpose for which it was created, in the name of which the citizens gave their consent. Early liberal thought is about further articulating those limits and their institutional consequences (e.g., separation of powers, Bill of Rights).
SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY
See also Justice and Injustice; Normative Theory; Politics; Social Contract.
For social contract theorists, power becomes authority not only by virtue of the purpose it serves, but by virtue of its origin in consent. The premise of all social contract theory is natural equality, variously understood. For Hobbes, we are equally vulnerable to violent death, for example, while for Locke we are equal in our authority over ourselves, but in both cases equality means that no one has natural authority over others. Authority must be created, by agreement among equals, and this necessitates a social contract. Legitimate authority is merely conventional, but created on natural grounds (our equality), and for the sake of natural ends (our survival and prosperity, for example). A particular kind of convention, then, is necessary for power to have genuine authority. Once the requirement of free consent has been satisfied, the scope and nature of authority is determined, again, by the purpose for which the contract was created. The purpose of government for Hobbes is safety; authority is created to impose peace on a violently competitive state of nature. The sovereign power can justly claim authority only if it can achieve its purpose, and the powers that are inherent to its authority are all those that are necessary for doing so. Hobbes’s sovereign is justly absolute—just authority must be understood to be unlimited—for only absolute power can ensure the safety of the commonwealth. Safety is near the heart of Locke’s view of the purpose of government—protection of life, liberty, and estate—but he argues that, given the dangers of tyranny, safety can only be ensured through limited government. Locke’s
THE ANTI-LIBERAL CRITIQUE For anti-liberal thinkers such as Marx (and to a lesser extent, Rousseau) it is the absence of a natural purpose for politics, and the injustice of its actual purposes, that destroys the claim to authority of modern regimes. For Marx, the state is the handmaiden of the exploiting class and can have no genuine authority. Politics is the appropriation of the monopoly of violence for class warfare. There can be no political justice, and therefore no political authority. Justice begins when class exploitation, and with it politics and the modern state, ends; the natural or authentic end of our species, species-being, is antithetical to the historical ends of politics. For Nietzsche, finally, there are no natural ends of any kind, therefore no justice or genuine authority, nor injustice or genuine oppression. There is only will to power. Power often masquerades as authority, and the struggle to define authority by defining justice is a principal arena of the struggle for power. In Nietzsche we see the fullest development of the implications hinted at in Weber, and expounded at length in Machiavelli, that authority is merely successful power.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G. BORDEN FLANAGAN BIBLIOGRAPHY Hamilton, Alexander, John Jay, James Madison, and Clinton Rossiter. The Federalist Papers, edited by Charles R. Kesler. New York: Signet Classics, 2003. Hobbes, Thomas. Leviathan, edited by Edwin Curley. Indianapolis: Hackett, 1994. Locke, John. Two Treatises of Government, edited by Peter Laslett. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Machiavelli, Niccolò. The Prince, translated by Harvey Mansfield Jr. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985. Marx, Karl, and Friedrich Engels. “The Communist Manifesto.” In The Marx-Engels Reader, 2nd ed., edited by Robert C. Tucker. New York: Norton, 1978. Mill, John Stuart. “On Liberty” and Other Writings, edited by Stefan Collini. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. Montesquieu, Charles. The Spirit of the Laws (Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought), edited by Anne M. Cohler, Basia Carolyn Miller, and Harold Samuel Stone. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. Nietzsche, Friedrich. Beyond Good and Evil, translated by Walter Kaufmann. New York:Vintage, 1966. Plato. The Republic of Plato, translated and edited by Allan Bloom. New York: Basic Books, 1991. Rawls, John. A Theory of Justice: Original Edition. New York: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2005. Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. The Basic Political Writings, translated and edited by Donald A. Cress. Indianapolis: Hackett, 1987. Weber, Max. The Vocation Lectures: Science as a Vocation, Politics as a Vocation, edited by David S. Owen and Tracy B. Strong, translated by Rodney Livingstone. Indianapolis: Hackett, 2004
106 Autocracy
Autocracy Autocracy is a form of government in which a single person has unlimited authority to exercise power. The word comes from two ancient Greek words, auto- (“self ”) and -cracy (“rule” from kratia). Modern authors are more likely to use the term authoritarian than autocracy, which is commonly used by some to describe ancient regimes that prevailed in backward societies without legal and political institutions to protect individuals.
PREVALENCE OF AUTOCRACY IN HISTORY Until the advent of modern government, beginning with the American Revolution (1776–1783), almost all governments were autocratic governments ruled by tribal chiefs, kings, or emperors, with the exception of the ancient Greek democracies. Autocratic rulers have usually been accepted as the sole source of legitimate power, unless a competing autocrat were accepted as more just or successful or legitimate. The autocrat is not limited by constitutional or popular restraints or by political opposition. If any opposition arises, it is usually not tolerated and is eliminated. The ancient empires of the Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, and Persians were fully autocratic. Various dynasties of ancient China were ruled by individuals in whom the power of their political system was centered. The Inca in Peru or various other empires around the world were without a doubt autocratic. Many autocracies were also theocracies because the exercise of power by the autocrat was based on some claim to divine right. The Buddhist theocracies or those of the Mayans were autocratic but also theocratic. It was mainly the Greek democracies that opposed autocratic government. Even today autocratic governments exist in many places. Arab sheikdoms of the Persian Gulf region can be described as autocratic; although their rule often appears to be benign, it is still very strong. This can have administrative advantages because decisions can often be achieved without having to engage in exhausting battles with interest groups or opposition parties that exist in democratic states. Thus, a decision to adopt green technology can be made by the ruler even if other interests are hurt.
THEORETICAL DISCUSSIONS OF AUTOCRACY: ARISTOTLE TO HOBBES Aristotle in his discussions of the forms or constitutions of government in his books Ethics, Rhetoric, and Politics defined monarchy and tyranny as rule by a single individual. The difference between a monarch and a tyrant lay in the object of concern of the autocrat. It was the people in the case of the monarch but self-interest in the case of the tyrant. Because tyrants have often masked their political actions, it has been difficult at times to distinguish them from monarchs. Niccolò Machiavelli supported absolutism, which was similar to autocracy. He wanted a centralizing power in the hands of an absolute ruler as a solution for the violent strife between the various city-states that was wracking Renaissance
Italy. Without a firm hand there would be no peace, and in that regard he counseled an ethic of success in the exercise of power. However, even Machiavelli was like many in autocratic regimes. The more the society matures, the less willing many are to tolerate unrestrained power in a single ruler. Jean Bodin, author of Six Books of the Commonwealth (Les Six livres de la République), defined sovereignty as the absolute and perpetual power vested in a commonwealth. For him, a prince who was sovereign was only accountable to God. This vision of the autocratic state found its fulfillment in King Louis XIV’s reign (1643–1715), where the loss of liberty stimulated the quest of the Baron de Montesquieu for liberty (Spirit of the Laws), ending with federalism as an antidote. However, as Aristotle observed in Politics, autocracy tends to be unstable. Thomas Hobbes was an advocate of an absolute monarchy. In Leviathan (1651), he used the idea of a social contract to place all power into the hands of a single sovereign who would keep the peace among men who would otherwise be in a “state of nature,” which was “a war of all against all” with lives that were “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.” His absolute sovereign, if not an autocrat, is described as one who functions like an autocrat even if the sovereign power is vested in a legislative body.
AUTOCRACY AND DEMOCRACY IN MODERNITY In more recent centuries, the tsars of Russia, the absolutist rulers of eighteenth-century Europe including the Sultan of Turkey, and many of the smaller kingdoms or dukedoms of Europe were autocrats. The Russian emperors employed the title autocrat. The title came from the Byzantine Empire as a translation of imperator (emperor). In modern times it has been used also as a title for the Emperor of Japan. Some monarchs have ruled in an autocratic fashion, but with diminished power due to growing restraints. However, the rise of liberal democracy, a partial revival of elements of ancient Greek democracy, brought most of the hereditary forms of autocracy to an end. Replacing autocracy that placed power in the hands of a single individual have been forms of authoritarianism. Authoritarianism is absolutist, but it rests on the principle that authority per se is legitimate and must be obeyed. Authoritarianism uses ideological elements to enlist the whole population of a state into its service.The rulers of such regimes then aspire to be autocrats or become autocrats. Adolph Hitler, Benito Mussolini, Joseph Stalin, and others used ideology and party to gather absolute power to become autocratic totalitarian rulers. Rulers like Idi Amin Dada of Uganda, Muammar al-Qaddafi of Libya, and El Hadj Omar Bongo Ondimba of Gabon have used tribal power supported by their personal ideology to justify their autocratic rule. Some modern autocratic rulers have assumed the trappings of democratic legitimacy. The rise of democratic government has not ended its competition with autocracy. In times of stress people may seek refuge in autocracy for the sake of peace and prosperity as both Machiavelli and Hobbes recognized. Or those with authoritarian personalities may trade freedom for autocratic rule.
Autonomy 107 Autocracy can appear in areas of life other than civil politics. Religious organizations, businesses, management styles (e.g.,Theory X), or family life may be dominated by autocratic persons or groups. See also Bodin, Jean; Hobbes,Thomas; Machiavelli, Niccolò. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ANDREW J. WASKEY BIBLIOGRAPH Y Downing, Brian. Military Revolution and Political Change: Origins of Democracy and Autocracy in Early Modern Europe. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993. Friedrich, Carl J. Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1965. Roller, Matthew B. Constructing Autocracy: Aristocrats and Emperors in JulioClaudian Rome. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2001. Rotberg, Robert. Ending Autocracy, Enabling Democracy:The Tribulations of Southern Africa, 1960–2000. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 2002. Tullock, Gordon. Autocracy. Leiden, Netherlands: E.J. Brill, 1987. White, Ralph K. Autocracy and Democracy: An Experimental Inquiry. New York: Harper, 1960.
legislature and other branches of government so as to govern with no opposition. It is not the same as a golpe de estado (coup d’etat), which generally involves a military overthrowing a president and taking power for itself. Autogolpes are not common events. The best-known took place in Peru in April 1992, when President Alberto Fujimori (elected in 1990) took power with the backing of the military and closed the Peruvian congress and the judicial system. His seizure of power was preceded by acrimonious relations with the congress over congressional attempts to limit Fujimori’s power, debates over economic policy, and ongoing problems with the judiciary. Fujimori was a minority president; his party held only 32 of the 175 seats in the legislature. In his address that announced the autogolpe, Fujimori recited a list of grievances as justifying the coup; a poll carried out a day or two after the coup found that 80 percent of the populace supportedit. See also Bureuacratic Authoritarianism; Coup d’Etat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HENRY A. DIETZ
Autogestion
Autonomy
Autogestion, a term used especially among French- and Spanishlanguage worker movements, refers to workers’ self-management and workplace control. Forms of activity undertaken by autogestion movements include workers’ cooperatives, workers’ councils, and syndicalism or revolutionary unionism. The notion of autogestion makes an early appearance in the works of the French anarchist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon in the nineteenth century. Perhaps the most extensive expression of autogestion occurred in Barcelona under anarchist direction during the Spanish Revolution (1936–1939). In France during the 1960s and 1970s the writings of social theorist André Gorz were particularly influential in mobilizations over demands for workers’ self-control. The 1973 worker occupation and selfmanagement of the LIP clockwork factory in France was the most influential moment in the autogestion movement during the cold war period. It sparked international movements for libertarian socialism and anarchist communism, which advocated autogestion as a grassroots working-class alternative to party-led forms of socialism and communism. During the twenty-first century, autogestion has become an important working-class response to the closure of factories in Argentina following the economic crisis of 2001. The recovered factory movement has involved the takeover of numerous workplaces, which have restarted production on a democratically controlled, cooperative basis by employees, after employers had abandoned them.
Autonomy, or self-government, is an ancient term that seems to have gained wide currency only in the second half of the twentieth century. It derives from the Greek word autonomia, which combines the words for self (auto) and law (nomos). To be autonomous, then, is to live according to laws one gives to oneself. In both ancient Greek and in contemporary usage, auto nomy figures in two different kinds of political discussions. In the first kind, autonomy may be a property of political units, such as cities, counties, provinces, or states.This was apparently the dominant usage of the term among the Greeks, who were concerned with the autonomy of the polis—the self-governing city-state. This usage persists, but is probably less common now than the second, which takes autonomy to be a possible and perhaps desirable feature of the individual person’s life. In this case, autonomy is of particular interest to political philosophers, who often explore the relationship between personal autonomy and government. They may ask, for instance, whether government is more likely to promote individual autonomy by leaving people alone or by taking steps to help them become (more) autonomous.
See also Anarchism; Proudhon,Pierre-Joseph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JEFFREY SHANTZ
Autogolpe Autogolpe is a Spanish ter m translated as “self-coup.” An autogolpe occurs when a seated president seizes power, often with the assistance of the military, and shuts down the
POLITICAL AUTONOMY Autonomy of the first kind—the autonomy of the selfgoverning political unit—was closely related in Greek thought to the concept of autarky (from autarkeia), or self-sufficiency. For a polis or state to be self-governing, according to the usual argument, it must be free to chart its own course, independent of the will of other political units. If it is to be truly independent, however, it will have to meet all, or almost all, of its own material needs; otherwise it will find itself dependent on those who provide it with food and other vital resources. Such a polis will be autonomous in name only. Contemporary discussions of political autonomy sometimes touch on this connection between autonomy and autarky, but
108 Autonomy they are more likely to concentrate on the relations of political units and subunits. In some cases the question is how much control over its own affairs a sovereign state can or should surrender, yet remain autonomous, when it joins an entity such as the United Nations or the European Union. In other cases, political autonomy is primarily a problem of the relations between a region or subunit and the overarching political unit in which it finds itself. Familiar examples include Quebec’s relationship with Canada, the Kurds’ relationship with Iraq, and the place of Scotland and Wales within the United Kingdom. Often the region or subunit wants full autonomy, to be achieved by secession, but sometimes arrangements are made to keep it within the larger political unit while granting it control over local matters that directly concern those who inhabit the subunit. Arrangements of this kind recognize what is often called regional or provincial autonomy.
PERSONAL AUTONOMY Autonomy as a property of political units may have been the primary sense in which ancient writers used the term, but there is at least one important reference to personal autonomy in Greek literature. This occurs in Sophocles’ tragedy Antigone, when the Chorus refers to the title character as autonomos: “true to your own laws” (Sophocles 2001, 36). This concept seems not to have played a major part in Western philosophy, however, until the eighteenth century. French Enlightenment philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau did not use the term, but his brief discussion of “moral liberty” has overtones of autonomy, as when he proclaims that “the impulse of appetite alone is slavery, and obedience to the law one has prescribed for oneself is freedom” (Rousseau 1978). Rousseau’s admirer, German philosopher Immanuel Kant, developed this assertion into a distinction between autonomy and heteronomy, or being ruled by others—including rule by one’s own irrational desires. Whether autonomy is necessarily a good thing—and what exactly it is—has been the subject of much discussion and debate in the past fifty years or so. The point of departure for these debates is often British philosopher Isaiah Berlin’s lecture, “Two Concepts of Liberty.” There Berlin connects the desire for autonomy to the “retreat to the inner citadel” (Berlin 1969, 135)—that is, the desire for self-mastery that is achieved by withdrawing into isolation and self-denial. Most other writers, however, take a more positive view of autonomy. In Stanley Benn’s account, for example, autonomy is a character ideal that leads the individual to try to form a consistent and coherent set of beliefs, albeit a set that must continually be adjusted in light of critical reflection. Personal autonomy is frequently taken to be an ideal of the liberal tradition. Autonomy is certainly at home within liberalism, which greatly values individual liberty, but it is by
no means clear that it is an exclusively liberal ideal. Nevertheless, some critics of liberalism, including some feminists, have complained that autonomy is an individualistic concept that deflects attention from the importance of community and social relations, especially caring relations. Parents, for example, should be less concerned with their autonomy than with the needs of their dependent children. In response, supporters of autonomy as an ideal agree that it is an individualistic concept, but they deny that it is the kind of individualism that ignores or even erodes important social relations. Personal autonomy is something that individuals exercise, but they can exercise it only when their capacity for selfgovernment has been sufficiently developed. Yet developing that capacity is something that no one can do alone. In other words, no person can be autonomous unless others help that person to become autonomous. One of the things the autonomous person should realize, then, is the importance of protecting and nurturing those relationships—and the other conditions—that protect and promote autonomy. What the role of government should be in this attempt to further autonomy has become one of the principal concerns of political philosophers. See also Autarky; Berlin, Isaiah; Greek Political Thought, Ancient; Individual and Society; Kant, Immanuel; Rousseau, Jean-Jacques; Self-determination; Sovereignty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RICHARD DAGGER BIBLIOGRAPHY Benn, Stanley. A Theory of Freedom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. Berlin, Isaiah. “Two Concepts of Liberty.” In Four Essays on Liberty, edited by Isaiah Berlin, 118–172. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969. Christman, John, ed. The Inner Citadel: Essays on Individual Autonomy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989. Christman, John, and Joel Anderson, eds. Autonomy and the Challenges to Liberalism: New Essays. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Dworkin, Gerald. The Theory and Practice of Autonomy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. Hannum, Hurst. Autonomy, Sovereignty, and Self-Determination:The Accommodation of Conflicting Rights, rev. ed. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996. Haworth, Lawrence. Autonomy: An Essay in Philosophical Psychology and Ethics. New Haven, Conn.:Yale University Press, 1986. Kant, Immanuel. 1785. Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals. Translated by Mary Gregor. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998. Lindley, Richard. Autonomy. Basingstoke, U.K.: Macmillan, 1986. Nedelsky, Jennifer. “Reconceiving Autonomy: Sources, Thoughts, and Possibilities.” Yale Journal of Law and Feminism 1 (Spring 1989): 7–36. Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. 1762. On the Social Contract, edited by Roger Masters and translated by Judith Masters. New York: St. Martin’s, 1978. Schneewind, J. B. The Invention of Autonomy: A History of Modern Moral Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998. Sophocles. Antigone. Translated by Paul Woodruff. Indianapolis: Hackett, 2001. Young, Robert. Personal Autonomy: Beyond Negative and Positive Liberty. London: Croom Helm, 1986.
B Baathism The starting point for understanding the ideology of the Arab Baath (also Ba’ath or Ba’th; Arabic for “resurrection” or “renaissance”) Socialist Party, is its slogan, “Unity, Freedom, Socialism.” Generally known as the Baath, it emerged in the early 1940s in Syria, but sometimes is considered a successor to another Syrian organization, the League of National Action, which dates back to 1932. The party spread to other Arab countries, particularly in the Fertile Crescent region. Its ideology represents an articulation of Arab nationalist and anticolonial thinking then ubiquitous in the area, especially among young educated people of modest origin. The precise date of the founding of the party is subject to some controversy, as two separate groups, largely made up of high school students, appeared almost simultaneously under the name Arab Baath Party. One of these soon disappeared, with its members joining the group led by two Syrian high school teachers, Michel Aflaq and Salah al-Din al-Bitar. The party added the word socialist to its name when it merged with the Arab Socialist Party of Akram Hourani, a prominent agitator for peasants’ rights in the Hama district of Syria (who broke away from that party in 1962). A national convention adopted a constitution for the Baath Party, which later changed its name to Socialist Baath Party, in 1947. The Baath eventually gained influence in electoral politics in Syria during the mid-1950s and later became the ruling party of Syria following a Baathist coup in 1963. Baathists also took power in Iraq in 1963, only to be overthrown later in the same year. Another coup in 1968 ushered in a period of Baathist rule in Iraq that endured until the American invasion of 2003, when the party was banned. Baathists (or ex-Baathists) apparently have played a significant role in the anti-American insurgency in the country since then.The Baath had considerable support in Jordan during the 1950s, particularly among the Palestinian population, but declined as a result of the regime’s repressiveness and its own factionalism.
ONE ARAB NATION Placing the word unity first in its slogan served to stress the idea, widely shared with others, of the Arabs as a nation with an “eternal mission”—distinct but not superior to other nations—that must unite. Party terminology stresses the oneness of the Arab nation by having a pan-Arab National
Command, while each country-level subdivision is known as a Regional Command. Dedication to this idea, together with threats from communists and “reactionaries,” led Baathists in 1958 to seek union with Egypt, whose leader, President Gamal Abdul Nasser, recently had gained heroic stature among Arab nationalists after his nationalization of the Suez Canal Company and subsequent survival of an invasion by Israel, Britain, and France. Baathists also hoped to provide the ideology and leadership for the new United Arab Republic (UAR), but soon were disillusioned by being left on the sidelines, leading many of them to support its breakup in 1961. The Arabs’ relationship to Islam remained an important part of their national identity, sometimes even for Christian Arabs, during the ascendancy of secular Arab nationalism. But while a connection between Islam and the Arab “spirit” was recognized, the Baathist concept of unity stresses the equality of Arabs without distinction of religion. Consequently, it has sometimes had a strong appeal to minority religious sects. In Syria, this led to a strong influx of the small, previously disadvantaged Alawi sect into the party’s ranks and the emergence of a Baathist regime in which it is dominant. In Iraq, the Sunni Baathists who took power made considerable progress in bringing Shiites into the party. And yet the tendency of those in power to rely on cronies and blood relatives, especially when faced with threats, resulted ironically in regimes with a highly sectarian character. In Iraq, in particular, Iran’s Islamic Revolution (1979) inspired many Shiites and put the loyalty of others in question, thus undermining the idea of nonsectarianism. As Shiite revolts were brutally suppressed, this accentuated the equation of Baathism with the Sunni Arab in a way that belied the nonsectarian nature of the ideology.
FREEDOM The word freedom in Baath Party usage carries multiple implications. It connotes freedom from the colonialism that dominated much of the Arab world when the party first emerged, as well as from continuing subordination to outside powers (that is, the freedom of the nation). Baathists have been committed to the slogan of nonalignment while cooperating pragmatically with particular big powers. Freedom also seemed to refer originally to freedom for the individual. Baathists gave strong support for such democratic principles as the direct election of members to the Syrian parliament and female suffrage in the late 1940s. But Baathist
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110 Bachrach, Peter regimes have come to power through military coups in both Syria and Iraq, and each regime has been highly authoritarian. Although the Syrian and Iraqi Baathist regimes established fronts in which some other parties were allowed to participate, those have had no real power. In effect, both Syria and Iraq have been single-party regimes, with the Baath organized along Leninist lines of “democratic centralism” (from cells at the bottom to a secretary general at the top). In reality, the power structure has been personalistic, with informal networks of cronies and relatives more important than any political party.
SOCIALISM Socialism always was subordinate to unity in the hierarchy of Baathist goals. Baathist socialist ideology, like other versions of Arab socialism, stresses the need to end exploitation and promote social justice. It advocates nationalization of big enterprises while leaving much of the economy in the hands of small owners. It calls for limits on ownership of agricultural land. The party’s constitution, adopted in 1947, declares “property and inheritance” to be “natural rights . . . protected within the limits of the national interest.” In practice, the Baathist regimes of Syria and Iraq brought formerly underprivileged people to power and established relatively statist economies, although both implemented some economic liberalization in the 1980s. Although Baathist regimes generally received much backing from communist countries, the Baath Party was always anticommunist, due to the Baathists’ ideology and their unwillingness to tolerate other political groups in their countries. They sometimes collaborated with Western powers against communism, as in the case of the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency’s 1963 help in bringing the Baath to power in Iraq and implementing an anticommunist pogrom. Like other proponents of socialism, both Baathist regimes pursued policies of land reform and nationalization but never attempted to abolish all private ownership.
FROM BAATH TO BAATHS Factionalism, based on both personal rivalries and ideological differences, has plagued the Baath. The period of SyrianEgyptian unity brought several splits, as Bitar and Hourani, but not Aflaq, endorsed secession from the UAR in 1961. With the Baath coming to power in Syria in 1963, factionalism remained rampant. A leftist military faction of the party (sometimes called the Neo-Baath and tending to come from the countryside), much influenced by Marxism and pursuing a particularly militant anti-Israel policy, carried out a coup against the existing Baathist regime in 1966. This was overthrown by a pragmatic, “corrective movement” under Hafiz al-Asad in 1970, during which Asad, also a Baathist, took power. The Baathist group that came to power in Iraq in 1968 became a rival to the Syrian regime, leading to the emergence of two rival National Commands and of rival Regional Commands in some countries, analogous to the competition between pro-Moscow and pro-Beijing communist parties. This rivalry seems basically to represent personal and geopolitical conflicts more than any disagreement over ideology
or policy. Enmity between Baathist Syria and Baathist Iraq became so intense that the former supported Iraq’s enemy in the Iraq-Iran War (1980–1988) and then joined the anti-Iraqi coalition in 1991. The Baath seems largely to belong to the past. By the early twenty-first century, both socialism and the goal of pan-Arab unification lost their former widespread appeal, as had secularism. The Syrian Baathist regime in 2009 was more a personalistic than a party dictatorship. Considering anti-Baathist attitudes of the now-empowered Shiite majority in Iraq, the restoration of the Baath there seems unthinkable. Only minor Baathist parties exist in other Arab countries, such as Yemen, Bahrain, Lebanon, Sudan, and Mauritania. See also Arab Socialism; Middle Eastern Politics and Society; Pan-Arabism and Pan-Islamism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GLENN E. PERRY BIBLIOGRAPHY Abu Jaber, Kamel S. The Arab Ba’th Socialist Party. Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1966. Baram, Amazia. Culture, History, and Ideology in the Formation of Ba’thist Iraq, 1968–1989. New York: St. Martin’s, 1991. Devlin, John F. The Ba’th Party: A History from Its Origins to 1966. Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, 1976. ———. “The Baath Party: Rise and Metamorphosis.” The American Historical Review 96 (December 1991): 1396–1407. Kaylani, Nabil A. “The Rise of the Syrian Baath 1940–1958: Political Success, Party Failure.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 3 (January 1972): 3–23. Marr, Phebe. The Modern History of Iraq, 2nd. ed. Boulder, Colo.: Westview, 2004. Olson, Robert. The Ba’th and Syria, 1947 to 1982:The Evolution of Ideology, Party, and State. Princeton, N.J.: Kingston, 1982. Rabinovich, Itmar. Syria under the Ba’th 1963–1966:The Army-Party Symbiosis. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 1972. Roberts, David. The Ba’th and the Creation of Modern Syria. New York: St. Martin’s, 1987. Seale, Patrick. The Struggle for Syria: A Study of Post-War Arab Politics, 1945–1958. New Haven, Conn.:Yale University Press, 1987.
Bachrach, Peter Peter Bachrach (1918–2007) was a political scientist and a prominent analyst of participatory democracy. Born in Winnetka, Illinois, Bachrach earned his bachelor’s degree from Reed College in Portland, Oregon, and a PhD in political science from Harvard University in 1951. He joined the faculty of Bryn Mawr College in 1946. In 1968, he moved to Temple University, where he remained until his retirement in 1988. In 1980, he was a visiting professor at the Graduate School of the City University of New York. Bachrach is best known for his 1962 article, “Two Faces of Power,” which he coauthored with Morton S. Baratz. Published in the American Political Science Review, it is the most widely cited article in the discipline of political science. In their article, Bachrach and Baratz argued that a lack of controversy may reflect latent power conflicts. According to Bachrach, prevailing institutions and political processes could limit the decision-making abilities and the
Bahro, Rudolf 111 formation and articulation of concerns among disenfranchised groups in society.While most power theorists of the time studied decisions, Bachrach contended that power also could be reflected in “nondecisions.” That is, that some actors had so much influence in the political process that they could block decisions that would be adverse to their interests from even being considered. According to Bachrach and Baratz, “power is also exercised when A devotes his energies to creating or reinforcing social and political values and institutional practices that limit the scope of the political process to public consideration of those issues which are comparatively innocuous to A” (948). They asserted that this power meant that demands for change can be suffocated before they are even voiced. Non-decision-making, therefore, constituted a “second face” of power. See also Elite Theory; Power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
JEFFREY KRAUS
BIBLIOGRAP HY Bachrach, Peter. The Theory of Democratic Elitish: A Critique. Boston: Little, Brown, 1967. Bachrach, Peter, and Morton S. Baratz. “Two Faces of Power.” American Political Science Review 56 (December 1962): 947–952. ———. Power and Poverty:Theory and Practice. New York: Oxford University Press, 1970. Bachrach, Peter, and Elihu Bergman. Power and Choice:The Formulation of American Population Policy. Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1973. Bachrach, Peter, and Aryeh Botwinick. Power and Empowerment: A Radical Theory of Participatory Democracy. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992.
Bagehot, Walter Walter Bagehot (1826–1877) was an economist and political journalist and one of the most influential writers on the British constitution until recent times. Bagehot is so important that other commentators have treated his doctrines, published in 1867, as if they were part of the unwritten constitution itself. Bagehot was born into a banking family in Somerset in southwestern England. Bored by banking, he turned to journalism and edited The Economist from 1861 until his death. His main legacy is a pair of books: The English Constitution (1865) and Lombard Street (1873), a study of the role of the central bank. Bagehot’s writing is clear and persuasive, and his influence is still apparent today: the United Kingdom’s politics correspondent for the modern Economist writes under the penname “Bagehot” (pronounced badge-ot). In The English Constitution, Bagehot’s target is political philosopher Charles-Louis Montesquieu’s claim that the United Kingdom’s liberty is due to a separation of powers. He argues that Montesquieu (and perhaps the American Federalists) got England completely wrong. (Like many Victorians, Bagehot failed to distinguish between England and the United Kingdom and was thus insensitive to Scotland and Ireland.) The “efficient secret” of the English constitution was the cabinet, a “buckle” that joined the “dignified” (the formal institutions
of governance: church, Parliament, and above all the monarchy) to the “efficient” part of the constitution. According to Montesquieu and the Federalists, the key to liberty lies with the separation of powers. According to Bagehot, it lies with concealing the efficient part of government (the cabinet operating through its control of the House of Commons) behind the dignified façade of crown and establishment. Power was fused, not separated. The executive ran the country through its control of both the permanent officials and (normally) the majority of seats in the House of Commons. Because of the doctrine of parliamentary supremacy, whereby statutes trump all other forms of law, the judiciary also occupied a subordinate role. There was no judicial review of either legislation or executive acts in Bagehot’s constitution. Bagehot was contemptuous of the monarch and her heir, calling them “a retired widow and an unemployed youth.” But he thought that having an ordinary family at the head of state was advantageous to social order. People would, he believed, follow the lives of the retired widow and the unemployed youth with interest, and not concern themselves with the efficient part of government, which could be left to competent statesmen. Curiously, successive British monarchs have learned their constitution from Bagehot, despite his evident contempt for the royal family’s intelligence. Even more curiously, so have most subsequent constitutional commentators. Though a liberal free trader, Bagehot was a profound anti-democrat. His constitutional doctrine may be summarized as this:The royalty and the aristocracy are too stupid to rule—“It is as great a difficulty to learn business in a palace as it is to learn agriculture in a park”(Bagehot 2008, 107)—as are the working and lower-middle class. Government should therefore remain in the hands of educated people who are well-informed on current events and politics. See also British Political Thought; Enlightenment Political Thought; Monarchy; Montesquieu, Charles-Louis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IAIN MCLEAN BIBLIOGRAPHY Bagehot, Walter. 1873. Lombard Street. Indianapolis: Library of Economics and Liberty, 2001, www.econlib.org/library/Bagehot/bagLom.html. ———. 1865. The English Constitution. Glenside, N.Z.: Forgotten Books, 2008.
Bahro, Rudolf Rudolf Bahro (1935–1997) is principally known as a green politician and thinker, and particularly as an advocate of ecosocialism and of a spiritual and psychological path to political transformation. He was born in 1935 in Bad Flinsberg, Lower Silesia, now part of Poland. He grew up in East Germany, and lost his mother, sister, and brother in World War II (1939–1945). As a youth he joined the East German Democrat Party and studied at Humboldt University in Berlin. He then worked as a journalist and as an official of the Union of Scientific Employees, a post from which he was dismissed in 1967 for publishing an article that was critical of the party.
112 Bakunin, Mikhail On the crushing of the Prague Spring in 1968, Bahro wrote what would be published in 1977 as The Alternative in Eastern Europe, in which he presented a critique of East European communism, particularly its materialism and its destructive growth-based economic aims, which mirrored those of Western Europe. He was arrested and imprisoned for this publication, causing an international outcry and campaign for his release. In 1979 he was deported to West Germany, where he joined the German Greens (Die Gruen). He argued for a synthesis of red and green political and economic principles, but he rejected many traditional Marxist ideas. His argument is best articulated in his 1984 book From Red to Green, arguably his best-known work. Although associated with the green political movement, Bahro was deeply critical of the “realist” sections of the green movement that sought electoral victory within the existing political system rather than pursuing more wholesale change. He argued that change at the spiritual and psychological level was necessary to overturn the ecologically destructive patterns of living accepted in the postindustrial West. Like Arne Naess, the founder of deep ecology, Bahro worked from an uncompromising biocentric viewpoint and was interested in the spiritual dimensions of green thinking. In 1985, after increasing frustration with the party’s strategy, he left the Die Gruen over a dispute about policy on animal testing: Bahro and his partner Christine Schröter would not accept the party’s compromise position that called for a ban on animal testing but allowed for exceptions in the field of medical research. In the years after his split with Die Gruen, Bahro further developed his ideas on the spiritual and psychological dimensions of social ecology, moving further from traditional democratic politics. From 1990, he was professor of social ecology at Humboldt University. His thought tended increasingly toward an authoritarian approach as the only viable practical solution to environmental problems, to the dismay of many on the left of the green movement. This approach is evident in his last book, Avoiding Social and Ecological Disaster:The Politics of World Transformation (1994). Bahro was diagnosed with cancer in 1995 and died two years later. See also Environmental Political Theory; Green Parties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . KERRI WOODS BIBLIOGRAP HY Bahro, Rudolf. From Red to Green. London:Verso, 1984. ———. Avoiding Social and Ecological Disaster:The Politics of World Transformation. Bath, U.K.: Gateway, 1994. Frankel, Boris. The Post-industrial Utopians. Cambridge, U.K.: Polity Press, 1987. Ulf, Wolter, ed. Rudolf Bahro: Critical Responses. New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1980.
Bakunin, Mikhail Russian revolutionary Mikhail Bakunin (1814–1876), who popularized the term anarchy and whose work was instrumental in the early development of the anarchist movement, was born in Tver, Russia, to an established noble family. He was primarily
a person of action who participated in numerous uprisings in Europe, most notably the Lyon uprising of 1870. A proponent of pan-Slavism in his youth, Bakunin turned to anarchism through his contact with the working-class movements. In his writings, Bakunin argues that external legislation and authority lead to the enslavement of society. All civic and political organizations are founded on violence exercised from the top down as systematized exploitation. Political law is understood by Bakunin, who served many years in prison and exile, as an expression of privilege. He rejects all legislation, convinced that it must turn to the advantage of powerful minorities against the interests of subjected majorities. Laws, inasmuch as they impose an external will, must be despotic in character. For Bakunin, political rights and democratic states are flagrant contradictions in terms. States and laws only denote power and domination, presupposing inequality.Where all govern, he once suggested, no one is governed. Where all equally enjoy human rights, the need for political rights dissolves. In such instances the state as such becomes nonexistent. Like Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, Bakunin envisions future social organizations as economic rather than political. He sees society as organized around free federations of producers, both rural and urban. Any coordination of efforts must be voluntary and reasoned. For example, Bakunin viewed trade unions not merely as economic institutions but as the “embryo of the administration of the future,” and he argued that workers should pursue cooperatives rather than strikes. Recognizing the impossibility of competing with capitalist enterprises, he called for the pooling of all private property as the collective property of freely federated workers’ associations.These ideas would serve as the intellectual impetus for anarcho-syndicalism and its vision of the industrial syndicate as the seed of the future society. Bakunin’s famous disagreements with Karl Marx over the role of the state in the transition to socialism initiated a rift within the International Working Men’s Association (IWMA), or First International, which led to the eventual expulsion of the anarchists and IWMA’s dissolution by Marx’s supporters, partly as a means to keep it out of anarchist hands. Bakunin’s central conflict with Marx was that an authoritarian revolutionary movement, as Marx espoused, would inevitably initiate an authoritarian society after the revolution. For Bakunin, if the new society is to be nonauthoritarian, then it can only be founded upon the experience of nonauthoritarian social relations. During his battle with Marx in 1871, Bakunin’s supporters in the IWMA asked, How can an egalitarian and free society be expected to emerge from an authoritarian organization? His concerns were vindicated by the direction taken decades later following the Russian Revolution (1917). Bakunin’s tireless work within the First International laid the groundwork for the development of flourishing anarchist movements in Italy, Spain, and several countries of Latin America, including the syndicalist movements that contributed to the Spanish Revolution (1936). See also Anarchism; Marx, Karl; Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JEFFREY SHANTZ
Balkans 113 BIBLIOGRAP HY Mendeel, Arthur P. Roots of Apocalypse. New York: Praeger, 1981. Saltman, Richard P. Social and Political Thought of Michael Bakunin. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1983.
Balance of Power Balance of power in international relations refers to the effort by states, in the face of a threat to security projected by a hostile, powerful third state, to offset aggression through association. The balance of power operates most effectively in a central system of three to five member states—neither too few nor too many—and roughly equal power, so that each state possesses enough weight to count in the balance. Small or weak states bandwagon because they cannot balance larger states. Historically, in a system of virtually perpetual warfare among states, as occurred in the seventeenth century, any increase in power would trigger a new balance. Modern conditions, where peace usually prevails, require an increase in both threat and power to trigger the formation of a new balance. Powerful Germany is no threat to Belgium; Belgium does not need to balance Germany and does not try. Nor does Canada seek to balance the United States, which is ten times its size in terms of gross national product or population. Why do alliances form within a balance-of-power framework? Conservative-realists argue that alliances form to counter a common external threat. Liberal-idealists argue that alliances form among like-minded governments with a similar cultural and institutional outlook. Stressing instead the role of institutions such as the United Nations, liberals, like postmodernists, tend to emphasize the shortcomings and contradictions of the balance of power to the point of rejection. Constructivists replace interest with identity, making balanceof-power calculations difficult. Neorealism subscribes to the idea of anarchy or independence among states, thus permitting a balance of power to operate. But more recent theories of hegemony require that the notion of hierarchy replace anarchy as a core concept; one state is dominant, the others are subordinate. In terms of assumption and operation, hegemony and balance of power are incompatible. When force is used to preserve security, peace may be undercut. Critiques of the shortcomings of the balance of power fail to distinguish its separate impact on security and peace. Although the balance of power probably has deterred many aggressors, it admittedly has failed to stop all wars. But it has preserved the security of the major states, such as in the alliance of Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union against Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan in World War II (1939–1945). It also has preserved the decentralized nationstate system from military takeover. When facing rising and declining power in the system, the balance of power gives off the wrong signals. Rising power internal to the state can never be halted; declining power can never be permanently bolstered. Prior to World War I (1914–1918), rising Germany should not have been isolated and encircled; the war arose from an attempt by the
system to constrain Germany’s power rather than accommodate Germany’s rise with legitimate role adjustment before it was too late, that is, before the “bounds of the system” shattered its expectations of continued rise and future opportunity for role gratification. Prior to World War II, declining Germany should have been balanced immediately; it had no role deficit, and Hitler’s territorial demands were inherently aggressive. While preserving security, such a dynamic equilibrium requires a strategy of adaptation to cope with the legitimate role aspirations of rising power, and a strategy of opposition and balance to deal with potentially expansionist behavior. Democracies can use balance and dynamic equilibrium to their advantage, but, as Henry Kissinger has noted, such thinking does not come easily to the democratic mind. See also Alliances; Coalition Formation; Foreign Policy Role; Power; Power Cycle Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHARLES F. DORAN BIBLIOGRAPHY Doran, Charles F. Systems in Crisis: New Imperatives of High Politics at Century’s End. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Haas, Ernst B. “The Balance of Power: Prescription, Concept, Propaganda.” World Politics 5 (1953): 446–477. Kissinger, Henry. Diplomacy. New York: Touchstone, 1994. Mearsheimer, John J. The Tragedy of Great Power Politics. New York: Norton, 2001. Rosecrance, Richard. Action and Reaction in World Politics. Boston: Little, Brown, 1963. Walt, Steven. The Origins of Alliances. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1987. Wight, Martin. Power Politics. London: Continuum International, 2002.
Balkans The term Balkans is typically used to refer to the peninsula in southeastern Europe that includes the present-day countries of Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, Romania, and the lands of the former Yugoslavia (Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia, Kosovo, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Slovenia). Once referred to as European Turkey or Rumeli, the present appellation comes from the Balkan mountains of Bulgaria, which were mistakenly believed to divide the entire peninsula from continental Europe. Besides its geographical meaning, the Balkans has, since the mid-nineteenth century, carried secondary connotations of violence, savagery, and primitivism that have led some scholars to prefer the designation southeastern Europe.
THE TERRITORY AND ITS HISTORY The lands of the Balkans are more than 70 percent mountainous, which has helped to produce two of its defining characteristics: its mixture of cultures and religions and its position as a relatively undeveloped borderland of empires. The Balkans have long been home to a variety of different cultures— Albanian, Greek, Roman, Slav, and Turkish, among others—and religions—Catholic, Jewish, Muslim, and Orthodox. The intermingling of these cultures and religions was the trait that most distinguished the region to later visitors from mainland Europe.
114 Balkans The region began to assume its modern form as a borderland of the Ottoman Empire, which became the main regional power in the fifteenth century and was only gradually pushed out over the course of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. A distinctive characteristic of Ottoman rule was its millet system, which granted a degree of self-government to religious groups even as all state offices were held by Muslims. One consequence of the millet system was the preservation of the region’s multiculturalism, as well as the creation of a significant Muslim minority made up largely of ethnic Slavs and Albanians who converted. In the nineteenth century, local intellectuals picked up European concepts of the nation and nationalism and began to apply them to the region. Though they initially encountered difficulties in creating Croat, Greek, or Serb identities from predominantly peasant and religious cultures, ultimately they managed to cobble together the official cultures, languages, and histories of the lands that exist today and at the same time extinguish many of the microcultures that existed up until then (e.g., Morlachs, Vlachs). These nationalists began to lead increasingly successful revolts against the deteriorating Ottoman Empire, producing the independent states of Bulgaria, Greece, Romania, and Serbia, while the territories of BosniaHerzegovina, Croatia, and Slovenia were subsumed into the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The meeting of nationalist ambitions with the diversity of cultures and the difficulty of classifying residents as members of one or another national group led to frequent inter-Balkan conflicts. As the great powers attempted to resolve these conflicts, they became entangled, and it was the assassination of the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo by a Slav nationalist that helped to ignite World War I (1914–1918). The end of the war led to a clarification of the region’s boundaries with the states of Albania, Bulgaria, Greece, and Romania assuming near their modern forms, and the Kingdom of Yugoslavia (or the South Slavs) being created out of Albanians, Bosniaks, Croats, Slovenes, Macedonians, Montenegrins, and Serbs, with the Serbs playing the leading role. It was Yugoslavia that proved the most volatile of the Balkan states, and it broke apart during World War II (1939–1945). The war was marked by brutal score-settling, particularly between Serbs and Croats, and frequently exceeding rational war aims. The communist partisan leader Josip Broz Tito managed to restore Yugoslavia to more or less its prewar borders by promulgating a myth of national resistance to the Nazis and clamping down on nationalist sentiment.
THE WARS OF YUGOSLAV SUCCESSION In contrast to the hard-line communist regimes that emerged after the war in neighboring Albania, Bulgaria, and Romania, postwar Yugoslavia pursued an independent course both in foreign policy (helping to form the nonaligned movement) and in domestic affairs, where it ultimately pioneered a unique form of worker self-management. This economic and political liberalization led many to expect the country to weather the fall of communism in 1989 better than other communist nations.
In fact, the transition unleashed the bloodiest fighting in Europe since World War II. Though the relatively homogeneous Slovenia managed to extract itself from Yugoslavia with minimal violence, moves by Croatia, and particularly Bosnia-Herzegovina, to declare their independence met resistance from Serb minorities in those republics. These Serbs were backed by the remnants of the Serb-controlled Yugoslav People’s Army and paramilitary militias. Efforts to carve out territory by Serbs and Croats in Bosnia, egged on by ultranationalist leaders, led to ethnic cleansing and genocide, with Muslims bearing the brunt of atrocities. The massacre of eight thousand Bosnian Muslims at Srebrenica in the presence of a UN peacekeeping force and the bombing of multiethnic Sarajevo by Serb forces focused world attention on the region. Though Western powers had been quick to recognize the new independent republics, they were slow to react to the fighting. One reason was the attribution of the conflict to “ancient hatreds,” a theory propounded by Croat and Serb nationalists and backed by many Western politicians. The theory, however, did not explain why the region had become multicultural in the first place, why much of its history was peaceful, nor the high rates of ethnic intermarriage in postwar Yugoslavia. Public revulsion at the slaughter, however, ultimately prompted the Western powers to intervene against Serb aggression in Bosnia and force the three sides to sign the Dayton Agreement (1995) that ended the fighting and led to a UNsponsored, NATO-led mission enforcing the peace in Bosnia. Hostilities, however, later resumed in Kosovo, with Kosovar Albanians turning to violent resistance against Serb oppression and then facing massive retaliation. Ultimately, NATO intervened through a bombing campaign against Serbia in 1999, which led to UN administration and ultimately independence for Kosovo.
AFTERMATH OF THE CONFLICT The final balance of these wars was horrific. The death toll has been estimated at slightly more than one hundred thousand, and perhaps two million people were displaced from their homes. Mass rape, torture, and attempted genocide compounded the trauma, with Bosnian Muslims bearing the lion’s share of the suffering. However, the effects of the war differed dramatically by territory. While Slovenia and, to a lesser extent, Croatia managed to reform their economies and turn themselves toward Europe, the other republics have faced rockier paths. Serbia democratized in 2000, but its economy remains marked by the entangling of the security forces and organized crime, its politics by significant ultranationalist forces, and its integrity by the secession of both Montenegro and Kosovo. Bosnia continues under international administration and is de facto divided into ethnic zones with efforts at resettlement and interethnic cooperation meeting scant success. Though successful in attaining its independence, Kosovo still has not been recognized by several major powers and faces an economy in shambles. There have been significant and productive debates in political science about the causes of these wars and what could have been done to prevent them. A key issue has been who is
Ballot Design 115 to blame. On one side stand those who single out volitional individuals or groups, especially the Serb leader Slobodan Miloševic´ and the Croatian leader Franjo Tud¯man and their allies who stirred up ethnic hatred. Some have rather pointed blame at the Slovenes or even the international community (either for recognizing the independent republics too soon or not intervening early enough). On the other side are those who point to structural forces. Susan Woodward, for example, emphasizes how persistent economic decline and state weakness left citizens dependent on national groups for security guarantees. Still others have focused on the structure of communist-era federalism and the military, the improper sequencing of regional and national elections, the dangers of democratization without prior liberalization, and even the clash of civilizations. There also have been enlightening debates about the justice and practicality of international involvement in civil wars and genocides. Particular attention has been devoted to the proper deployment of international peacemaking and peacekeeping operations, given the failures of a UN force without robust engagement policies and the apparent successes of more forceful interventions by NATO. The formation of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, which saw the first indictment of a sitting head of state and was a precedent for the International Criminal Court, also spawned a large literature on the efficacy of trials for war criminals. Critics argue that it has engaged in selective and politically inspired prosecutions, while supporters argue that it did provide justice for the victims of the war and removed important obstacles to democratization. Finally, there have been fierce debates about the normative desirability of international support for secession and state breakup versus respect for state sovereignty, both with respect to the start of the war and as a precedent for other regions.What was a tragedy for the people of Yugoslavia has led to a flourishing literature in political science. See also Clash of Civilizations; Democracy and Democratization; European Politics and Society; Genocide; Humanitarian Intervention; International Criminal Court (ICC) (ICC); Transitional Regimes;Transitology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ANDREW ROBERTS BIBLIOGRAP HY Mazower, Mark. The Balkans: A Short History. New York: Modern Library, 2000. Ramet, Sabrina P. Thinking about Yugoslavia: Scholarly Debates about the Yugoslav Breakup and the Wars in Bosnia and Kosovo. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Woodward, Susan L. Balkan Tragedy: Chaos and Destruction after the Cold War. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1995.
Ballot Design Ballot design generally refers to the ways in which candidates and contests are arranged on electoral ballots of various types. Ballot design first received widespread attention in 2000, when the U.S. presidential election was decided in part by contested results in a county that used a butterfly ballot of
allegedly poor design. Two groups in the United States that have paid particular attention to ballot design are Design for Democracy (an initiative of AIGA, the professional association for design) and the Brennan Center for Justice at New York University School of Law. On an international level, the ACE Electoral Knowledge Network (www.aceproject.org), begun in 1998, seeks to expand transparency of elections and increase trust in their credibility. Affiliated with the United Nations and the International Institute for Democracy and Elections Assistance, the ACE Project compiles information about election processes and tries to identify best practices. U.S.-style democracies may be more susceptible to ballot design issues for a variety of reasons. Responsibility for ballot design is usually not centralized and is often assigned to partisan officials who lack design expertise. Further, frequent changes in election regulations and technology create opportunities for new mistakes in design.
BALLOT DESIGN ISSUES IN THE UNITED STATES In the United States, voters elect officeholders from the president to the county coroner, and may vote also in contests tied to their residence in school or water districts that cross various jurisdictional lines. Ballot challenges may make ballot design a moving target until shortly before election day. Further, ballots must be adjusted for each new election, which will have different categories of contests, numbers of contestants, and ballot styles. Best practices in design recommend that ballots be tested with users before elections, but timing considerations may make testing difficult. Ballot design may affect electoral results in two ways. First, design flaws can mislead voters and cause them to miscast votes or fail to cast votes in certain contests. Second, every choice mechanism, even if perfectly designed, favors one choice over another. As Thaler and Sunstein (2008) have noted, there is no such thing as a neutral choice mechanism. The consequences of this reality are often called primacy effect or position bias, but perhaps a better term is position impact, because any effect on the vote is not necessarily the result of conscious or unconscious prejudice.
DESIGN FLAWS Design flaws may lead voters to skip a contest or to vote for the wrong candidate. In a 2006 congressional contest in Florida, ballot designers placed the two-candidate congressional race on the same screen as a six-candidate gubernatorial contest. Norden et al. (2008) reported that 13.9 percent of the voters did not vote in the contest, compared to only 2.5 percent of voters who voted in the same contest on different ballots. Similarly, many King County, Washington, voters skipped a 2009 referendum contest that appeared at the bottom of a column of voting instructions. A ballot that requires voters to behave in a counterintuitive way may mislead voters, despite the presence of accurate instructions. Most voters obey their intuitive, “automatic systems” instead of reading directions. This kind of problem can be exacerbated by overly complex voting technologies such as
116 Ballot Design POSITION IMPACT It is axiomatic that for every contest on every ballot, one candidate’s name— usually the top name on the list—will be the first name that the voter sees. Scholars theorize that seeing a candidate’s name first may cause a voter to think of that candidate in a more positive light or to make that candidate the standard against which all others are judged. Krosnick and others (2004) have argued that this effect can swing as much as 3 percent of the vote. Whether or not this psychological effect exists, it is a physical reality that on some ballots, the names of certain candidates will be in more conspicuous positions than the names of others. Despite controversy as to the existence and effect of position impact, ballot regulations seem to take it into account. In some states, the law requires Paper ballots have been used in elections for much of the twentieth century. Voters first that candidate names rotate from preused pull-lever machines and, later, punch card methods to cast their ballot. cinct to precinct or district to district, source: AP Images so that each candidate’s name appears in each position on approximately the same number of ballots. In other states, in contrast, the ballot rules seem to ensure that any possible position impact benefits the two dominant parties. In these states, candidates of lesser-known parties may be symbolically and literally moved to the fringe of the ballot. Voters who are distracted from or who cannot find their original choice may vote for a different candidate or not vote in a particular contest at all. Position impact is less likely to affect a voter in a presidential election or other significant contest. But when voters reach the less-significant, or downticket, contests, they may be unwilling to expend the time and energy needed to give all candidates equal consideration, or to search diligently for the candidate they had originally planned to select. These voters consciously choose the candidates they select—or An Indonesian official holds up a checked presidential election ballot in 2009 bearing the faces of the candidates. While electronic ballots are growing in use in the twenty-first consciously choose not to vote in a century, a variety of ballot styles remain in use. particular contest—but that conscious source: Getty Images choice may have been influenced by the positions of the various candidates punch-card ballots.The most infamous example of this kind of in the contest. Because small differences can change the problem is the so-called butterfly ballot, which was used in Palm outcome of an election, position impact has almost certainly Beach County, Florida, in 2000. affected the results of some elections.
Baltic States 117 INTERNATIONAL BALLOT DESIGN ISSUES Ballot design varies from country to country and from electoral system to electoral system. In some parliamentary elections, a ballot paper may be a single preprinted sheet on which the voter selects the party of choice; in others, the voter casts two votes: one for a particular candidate, and one for the preferred party. In countries with lower literacy rates, elections officials may use pictures of candidates or party symbols to help make it easier for voters to identify their choices. Andrew Reynolds and Marco Steenbergen (2006) report that Latin American countries tend to include symbols, colors, and photographs on their ballots and that party and candidate symbols may be found on ballots in southern Europe and in former British colonies of Asia and the Caribbean.They argue that seemingly innocuous symbols assigned to candidates can have a direct impact on voters. They report that in Tanzanian elections, candidates who were randomly assigned the symbol of a gardening hoe seemed to receive a significant benefit compared to candidates who were randomly assigned the symbol of a Western-style house. Some theorize that anti-Western, proagrarian attitudes aided the “hoe” candidates and hurt the “house” candidates. Eventually, the symbols were abandoned after allegations that the house symbol was being deliberately assigned to candidates of the nonruling party.
POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS Design for Democracy, the Brennan Center, the ACE Project, and others have recommended best practices to avoid design flaws, including reducing visual clutter, using plain language in voting instructions, and following design principles that recognize how voters intuitively move through documents. For example, electronic ballots should include only one contest on each computer screen. On a paper ballot, candidates in a single contest should be listed in a single column. The ACE Project specifically recommends using party symbols in all environments and using photographs on ballots in societies with lower literacy rates and where party affiliations frequently change. Most importantly, best practices include conducting usability testing to verify the effectiveness of the ballot design. Rotation of candidate names, while not yet widely recommended, can help to mitigate position impact, as well as the impact of some design flaws. Perfect ballots cannot be guaranteed, but elections officials who follow best practices can greatly reduce the number of design flaws and increase the effectiveness of and confidence in voting systems. See also Absentee Voting; Campaigns; Election Monitoring; Electronic Voting; Voting Behavior; Voting Machines and Technology; Voting Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MARY BETH BEAZLEY BIBLOGRAP HY Alvarez, R. Michael, Betsy Sinclair, and Richard L. Hasen. “How Much Is Enough? The ‘Ballot Order Effect’ and the Use of Social Science Research in Election Law Disputes.” Election Law Journal 5, no. 1 (2006): 40–56.
Bain, Henry M., and Donald S. Hecock. Ballot Position and Voter Choice. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1957. Brady, Henry E., Michael C. Herron, Walter R. Mebane Jr., Jasjeet Singh Sekhon, Kenneth W. Shotts, and Jonathan Wand. “‘Law and Data’: The Butterfly Ballot Episode.” PS: Political Science and Politics 34 (March 2001): 59–69, www.jstor.org/stable/1350311. Brockington, David. “A Low Information Theory of Ballot Position Effect.” Political Behavior 25 (March 2003): 1–27, www.jstor.org/stable/3657312. Bullock, Charles S., III, and Richard E. Dunn. “Election Roll-off: A Test of Three Explanations.” Urban Affairs Review 32, no. 1 (1996): 71–86, http:// uar.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/32/1/71. California Electrical Code, sec, 13112(a) (2003). Garber, Andrew. “Thousands of King County Voters Apparently Missed I-1033 on the Ballot.” Seattle Times, November 4, 2009. Herrnson, Paul S., Richard G. Niemi, Michael J. Hanmer, Benjamin B. Bederson, and Frederick C. Conrad. Voting Technology:The Not-So-Simple Act of Casting a Ballot. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 2008. Ho, Daniel E., and Kosuke Imai. “Shaken, Not Stirred: Evidence on Ballot Order Effects from the California Alphabet Lottery, 1978–2002.” Harvard Law School Public Law and Legal Theory Research Paper Series, Paper No. 89; Princeton University Program in Law and Public Affairs, Paper No. 04–001, http://ssrn.com/abstract=496863. Krosnick, Jon A., Joanne M. Miller, and Michael P. Tichy. “An Unrecognized Need for Ballot Reform: The Effects of Candidate Name Order on Election Outcomes.” In Rethinking the Vote:The Politics and Prospects of American Election Reform, edited by Ann N. Krigler, Marion R. Just, and Edward J. McCaffery, 51–74. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. Laskowski, Sharon J., Marguerite Autry, John Cugini, William Killam, and James Yen. Improving the Usability and Accessibility of Voting Systems and Products. Special Publication 500–256. Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Standards & Technology, 2004. Lausen, Marcia. Design for Democracy: Ballot + Election Design. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007. Miller, Joanne M., and Jon A. Krosnick. “The Impact of Candidate Name Order on Election Outcomes.” Public Opinion Quarterly 62 (1998): 291–330. Norden, Lawrence, David Kimball, Whitney Quesenbery, and Margaret Chen. Better Ballots. New York: Brennan Center for Justice, 2008, www.brennancenter.org/content/resource/better_ballots. Ohio Const. art.V, § 2a. Ohio Revised Code, sec. 3505.03. Reynolds, Andrew, and Marco Steenbergen. “How the World Votes: The Political Consequences of Ballot Design, Innovation, and Manipulation.” Electoral Studies 25, no. 3 (September 2006): 570–598. Roth, Susan King. “Disenfranchised by Design:Voting Systems and the Election Process.” Information Design Journal 9, no. 1 (1998): 1–8. Thaler, Richard H., and Cass R. Sunstein. Nudge: Improving Decisions about Health,Wealth, and Happiness. New Haven, Conn.:Yale University Press, 2008.
Baltic States The term Baltic states refers to the countries of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. Formerly republics in the Soviet Union, each became independent in 1991. Unlike most other former Soviet states, they established liberal democracies and market economies, and they are unequivocally pro-Western in their orientation. In 2004, all three states joined the European Union (EU) and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). These countries are frequently grouped together because of their geographic proximity on the southern shores of the Baltic Sea, their common history under Soviet rule, and their small size. Lithuania, about the size of West Virginia and with
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Baltic States 119 a population of 3.4 million people, is the largest of the three. Latvia has 2.3 million people; Estonia’s population is only 1.3 million. However, the titular peoples of the Baltic states are ethnically distinct and have different national histories. Lithuanians and Latvians speak Indo-European Baltic languages, but they are not mutually intelligible. Estonians speak a FinnoUrgic language that is closely related to Finnish. Lithuanians, as part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1795), ruled over most of the region in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and are overwhelmingly Catholic. Estonia and large parts of Latvia are primarily Lutheran, a reflection of their connections to the Hanseatic League and the Danish and Swedish empires. By the early nineteenth century, however, all three peoples fell under Russian domination.
BALTIC STATES DURING THE WORLD WARS After World War I (1914–1918), all three Baltic states declared themselves independent and successfully fought independence wars against both Germans and Bolshevik (Soviet) authorities. Although they tried to establish democratic governments in the interwar period, these did not take root. Political paralysis led to a coup in Lithuania in 1926, and economic problems led to the rise of extreme nationalist groups in Estonia and Latvia. These groups, aided by paramilitary forces, in these two states seized power in bloodless coups in 1934, overturning weak but democratically elected governments. Foreign threats, emanating from Germany, Poland, and the Soviet Union, also were invoked by some to justify the creation of more powerful governments. Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania lost their independence in June 1940 as a consequence of Soviet invasion. Afterward, the Soviets rigged elections in all three countries, after which communist authorities in each government formally applied to join the Soviet Union. They became republics within the formally federal Soviet state. However, this takeover was deemed illegitimate both internationally and by large segments of the local population. In 1941, all were conquered by invading German forces, and most of their sizeable Jewish populations (especially in Lithuania and Latvia) perished in the Holocaust. In 1944, when Soviet authorities (re)invaded as they pushed the Germans back, many Balts fought against the Red Army; some were still combating Soviet authorities into the early 1950s.
RISE AND FALL OF SOVIET RULE Soviet rule was harsh in the Baltic states, particularly in Estonia and Latvia, where tens of thousands of people were deported to other parts of the Soviet Union. In turn, large numbers of ethnic Russians emigrated to the region, particularly to Latvia and Estonia. For example, by 1989 ethnic Estonians comprised only 61 percent of Estonia’s population; ethnic Latvians were a bare majority, 52 percent, in their republic. Many feared that they would lose their culture and language because of Soviet (Russian) control. However, thanks to their previous development and relatively skilled population, the Baltic republics were the most prosperous region in the Soviet Union.
Lithuania’s new President Dalia Grybauskaite, second from right, stands with her predecessor, Valdas Adamkus, second from left, during her 2009 inauguration ceremony in Vilnius, Lithuania. Once a Soviet republic, Lithuania obtained its independence in 1991. source: AP Images
When Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev launched his reforms of glasnost and democratization in the late 1980s, it allowed people to discuss their history and form independent political groups. Peoples in the Baltic states began to demand an accounting for the past and political changes for the future. They pointed to their forceful and (in their view) illegal incorporation into the Soviet Union, threats to their language and culture, and environmental damage caused by Soviet rule. In an unprecedented display of civic activism under the Soviet Union, more than two million people from all three countries formed a 400-mile (640-kilometer) human chain in August 1989 to mark the sixtieth anniversary of the Nazi-Soviet Pact, which had facilitated the Soviet takeover. By spring 1990, in order to win local elections, even local communist leaders were agitating for independence from the Soviet Union. Over the course of the next year, these states issued declarations of sovereignty and eventually independence, and independence referendums were overwhelming approved by voters. There was, however, some violence in
120 Banana Republic Latvia and Lithuania in January 1991, which was instigated by Soviet troops stationed in the Baltics. The example of the Baltics would encourage other Soviet peoples to demand their independence as well, making the Baltic republics crucial actors in the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Ultimately, Gorbachev refused to endorse major military operations to squash the independence movements. By September 1991, Moscow recognized their independence, which Baltic leaders asserted was a rightful restoration of their status as sovereign states.
INDEPENDENT BALTIC STATES Since gaining independence, the Baltic states rank as the most successful of the former Soviet states in terms of consolidating democratic governments and creating vibrant, marketoriented economies. After protracted negotiations, Russian troops pulled out of the region in 1994. By the mid-1990s, all three states had well-functioning parliamentary democracies, with tensions over citizenship and language status for Russian-speaking minorities resolved, due largely to international mediation and pressure. After a period of economic hardship in the early 1990s, governments in the Baltic states implemented market-based economic reforms and reoriented their economies westward. By the late 1990s, their economies began to rebound, with Estonia, thanks to its ties to Finland, becoming a high-tech leader for all the postcommunist world. In 2004, all three joined the EU and NATO, which they considered important both for economic reasons and for protection against any political or military threat from Russia. See also Europe, Democracy in; European Politics and Society; Glasnost; Soviet Union, Former. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PAUL JAMES KUBICEK BIBLIOGRAP HY Lane, Thomas. Lithuania: Stepping Westward. New York: Routledge, 2001. Lieven, Anatol. The Baltic Revolution: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and the Path to Independence. New Haven, Conn.:Yale University Press, 1993. Misiunas, Romuald, and Rein Taagepera. The Baltic States:Years of Dependence 1940–1990. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993. O’Connor, Kevin. The History of the Baltic States. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 2003. Pabriks, Artis, and Aldis Purs. Latvia:The Challenges of Change. New York: Routledge, 2001. Smith, David. Estonia: Independence and European Integration. New York: Routledge, 2001.
Banana Republic In his 1904 novel, Cabbages and Kings, the author O. Henry first referred to a “banana republic,” and the resulting image of a corrupt, fruit-dependent country came from his own impressions of Honduras at the turn of the twentieth century. Over time, however, the term has transcended its specific historical, temporal, and geographical origins. It now typically refers to a small and poor country (generally, but not exclusively, Central American or Caribbean) that is deemed backward, weak, and unequal, and is ruled by a corrupt elite closely tied to foreign interests. Those foreign investors, in
turn, show a proclivity to appeal to their home government (especially the United States) to intervene if their investments seem at risk. The reference to bananas reflected (and in many cases, continues to reflect) the dominance of a limited number of agricultural exports, particularly the fruit industry, and the political influence of foreign investors. The most prominent example was the United Fruit Company, which wielded tremendous power over a number of governments in the first half of the twentieth century in countries like Guatemala and Honduras. All national leaders, elected or not, were faced with a company that was the largest single land owner, employer, and tax payer, which had built its own infrastructure, encouraged the crushing of internal dissent and bought off or intimidated government officials at all levels, thus severely limiting any efforts at social, political, or economic change. See also Corruption and Other Political Pathologies; Corruption, Political; Elites, Political;Trade Diplomacy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GREGORY WEEKS
Bandwagoning In electoral politics, bandwagoning refers to supporting a candidacy or political position because it is already popular. This bandwagon effect can occur because the popularity of a preference is seen as evidence for its rightness. Individuals who “join the bandwagon” often free-ride by sharing the benefits of the victory without having shared the costs to accomplish it. In foreign policy, bandwagoning is a strategy in which states seek to increase their security or prosperity by aligning with a strong regional or global power, whether through official alliance agreements or more informally through increased economic and political ties. A term popularized by Kenneth Waltz in his 1979 Theory of International Politics, bandwagoning is often presented as the opposite of balancing, which can be defined as a strategy of increasing national security by siding against the dominant actors in the system. Bandwagoning (in the foreign policy sense) may be undertaken for a number of reasons, ranging from self-preservation in a crisis to an opportunistic desire to free-ride on the success of others. Historically, bandwagoning is more likely to be undertaken by smaller and less powerful actors, which explains why theories of great and middle powers focus on balancing behavior. Bandwagoning is also more likely to occur near the end of major wars, when the winning alliance has nearly secured its victory. Traditionally, fear of bandwagoning and attempts to thwart it have influenced foreign policy far more than the actual practice of bandwagoning. Superpower relations during the cold war, for instance, were shaped in part by a fear of falling geostrategic dominoes at their periphery. See also Alliances; Balance of Power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VSEVOLOD GUNITSKIY
Banks, Jeffrey S. 121
Banfield, Edward C. Edward C. Banfield (1916–1999) was a political scientist who is best known for three books: The Moral Basis of a Backward Society (1958), The Unheavenly City (1970), and The Unheavenly City Revisited (1974). Banfield grew up on a farm in Bloomfield, Connecticut. He attended the Connecticut State College at Storrs (now the University of Connecticut) and received a bachelor’s degree in English in 1938. Following graduation, Banfield held a variety of government jobs. He began with the U.S. Forest Service, then moved to the New Hampshire Farm Bureau in 1939. From 1940 to 1947, Banfield worked in public relations for the U.S. Farm Security Administration (FSA), a New Deal era agency. During his time at the FSA, Banfield was admitted to the University of Chicago, where he studied planning and cities. He received his PhD in political science in 1952 from the University of Chicago and then joined its faculty. He remained there until 1959, when he moved to Harvard University. Banfield remained at Harvard until his retirement, except for a four-year stint (1972–1976) at the University of Pennsylvania. While initially a supporter of Franklin Roosevelt and the New Deal, Banfield increasingly became skeptical of government’s growing social welfare role. Reviewing his experience with the FSA, he concluded that assistance to the poor had not improved the lives of the recipients, and in some cases had made their lives worse. He was critical of liberal ideas, especially the use of federal aid to relieve urban poverty. He argued that culture was the cause of urban poverty, and that federal aid would ultimately fail because it targeted the wrong problem. Indeed, he suggested that federal assistance could make the problems of urban poverty worse. His work was often criticized as “blaming the victim” for their situation. With scholar Martin Meyerson, Banfield challenged the proliferation of high-rise public housing projects in Chicago and other cities around the country, warning that they would have the unintended consequence of racially isolating the urban poor. His point of view would be vindicated during the 1990s, as public housing authorities around the country began demolishing these high-rises, replacing them with less densepacked garden apartments and town houses. Banfield’s The Moral Basis of a Backward Society is about a poor village of Chiramonte in southern Italy. In explaining why the village was poor, Banfield coined the term, amoral familism, a phenomenon that he described as families in the village distrusting one another to the point where they could not cooperate. He compared this town with Gunlock, Utah, a small Mormon town he had studied in the early 1950s. In contrast to Chiramonte, Gunlock prospered because the farmers of the town cooperated with one another. This led Banfield to conclude that culture, not the absence of financial support, explained why the Italian town did not prosper.
In The Unheavenly City, he contended that the so-called urban crisis of the time was misunderstood. He suggested that many aspects of the crisis were not problems, and that some problems (traffic congestion) could be managed easily, while others (crime and racism) would be difficult to manage.While acknowledging that racism was a problem, he contended that urban poverty was more a case of class prejudice than race prejudice. Banfield’s influence was extensive, with several future leading conservative scholars among his students: Christopher DeMuth, Bruce Kovner,Thomas Sowell, and James Q.Wilson. Banfield also served as an advisor to President Richard M. Nixon, heading the Presidential Task Force on Model Cities. See also New Deal; Urban Economic Development; Urban Housing; Urban Inequality and Poverty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JEFFREY KRAUS BIBLIOGRAPHY Banfield, Edward C. The Unheavenly City. Boston: Little, Brown, 1970. ———. The Unheavenly City Revisited: A Revision of the Unheavenly City. Boston: Little, Brown, 1974. Banfield, Edward C., and Laura Fasano. The Moral Basis of a Backward Society. Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1958. Banfield, Edward C., and Martin Meyerson. Politics, Planning, and the Public Interest. Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1955. Banfield, Edward C., and James Q. Wilson. City Politics. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press/MIT Press, 1963. Kesler, Charles R., ed. Edward C. Banfield: An Appreciation. Claremont, Calif.: Henry Salvatori Center for the Study of Individual Freedom in the Modern World, 2002. Meyerson, Martin, and Edward C. Banfield. Boston:The Job Ahead. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1966.
Banks, Jeffrey S. Jeffrey Scot Banks (1958–2000) was a scholar who made wideranging contributions to economics and political science. He received his BA in political science from the University of California Los Angeles in 1982 and his PhD in social science from the California Institute of Technology in 1986. Banks began his career at the University of Rochester and was promoted to full professor of economics and political science in just five years. He left Rochester in 1997 to join the faculty at the California Institute of Technology, where he remained until his death due to complications from the treatment of leukemia. Banks’ productivity as an academic was prodigious: At the time of his death, he had published forty-three articles and two books—with an additional book and eight additional articles published posthumously. Banks’ work had an impact in a large number of fields, including game theory, social choice theory, economic theory, international relations, experimental economics, and political economy. In game theory, his work with Joel Sobel produced the concept of divine equilibrium, used to sharpen theoretical predictions in mathematical models of strategic interaction. In social choice, Banks characterized the outcomes possible as a result of varying the order in which bills are considered
122 Barker, Ernest (this is now known as the “Banks set”); he contributed to the understanding of the conditions under which majority voting leads to stable outcomes; and with David Austen-Smith, he authored a two-volume book that has provided students and researchers with much-improved access to the cutting edge of the field. In economic theory, his work with Rangarajan Sundaram expanded our knowledge of optimal decision rules when faced with a set of choices with uncertain outcomes. In international relations, Banks established general results on the probability of war, importing the techniques from the literature on mechanism design in economics. In experimental economics, Banks and coauthors John Ledyard and David Porter analyzed the performance of markets in the face of uncertain demand or supply. Perhaps the largest impact of Banks’ work was in the field of political economy. With David AustenSmith, Banks made seminal contributions to our understanding of elections and government formation in parliamentary systems and of the effect of strategic voting on the probability that majority voting leads to the “correct” outcome. With John Duggan, Banks established foundational results for general legislative bargaining games. On the topic of elections, Banks (by himself and with various coauthors) elucidated the effect of small costs due to deviations from campaign platforms, the impact of uncertainty about voting behavior on candidate positions, and the influence of future elections on political outcomes in the present. See also Economic Theories of the State; Game Theory; International Relations Theory; Political Economy; Social Choice Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JOHN DUGGAN BIBLIOGRAP HY Austen-Smith, David, and Jeffrey S. Banks. “Elections, Coalitions, and Legislative Outcomes.” American Political Science Review 82 (1988): 405–422. ———. “Information Aggregation, Rationality, and the Condorcet Jury Theorem.” American Political Science Review 90 (1996): 34–45. ———. Positive Political Theory I: Collective Preference. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999. ———. Positive Political Theory II: Strategy and Structure. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2005. Banks, Jeffrey S. “Sophisticated Voting Outcomes and Agenda Control.” Social Choice and Welfare 1 (1985): 295–306. ———. “Equilibrium Behavior in Crisis Bargaining Games.” American Journal of Political Science 34 (1990): 599–614. ———. “Singularity Theory and Core Existence in the Spatial Model.” Journal of Mathematical Economics 24 (1995): 523–536. Banks, Jeffrey S., and John Duggan. “A Bargaining Model of Collective Choice.” American Political Science Review 94 (2000): 733–788. Banks, Jeffrey S., John O. Ledyard, and David P. Porter. “Allocating Uncertain and Unresponsive Resources: An Experimental Approach.” Rand Journal of Economics 20 (1989): 1–25. Banks, Jeffrey S., and Joel Sobel. “Equilibrium Selection in Signaling Games.” Econometrica 55 (1987): 647–661. Banks, Jeffrey S., and Rangarajan K. Sundaram. “Denumerable-armed Bandits.” Econometrica 60 (1992): 1071–1096.
Bargaining See Negotiations and Bargaining.
Barker, Ernest Sir Ernest Barker (1874–1960) was a British scholar of the early twentieth century and a noted authority on classical political philosophy. Barker was the oldest of seven children born to a farm family in rural England. He was noted for his hard work and exceptional intellect. Barker received his PhD from Oxford University, where he was fellow of several colleges and served on the history faculty for twenty-one years. Barker was principal of Kings College, London; held the first Rockefeller funded chair in political science; and was fellow of Peterhouse at Cambridge University from 1928 until his retirement in 1939. Barker was knighted in 1944 for his contribution to the Books Commission of the Allied Ministers of Education. Barker’s most noted work, The Political Thought of Plato and Aristotle, was published when he was thirty-two years old and became an enduring foundational work in classical political philosophy. Barker produced exceptional quality work throughout his life. Forty years after The Political Thought of Plato and Aristotle, Barker published his translation of Aristotle’s Politics, which remains a classic in the field and is still widely read today. By the close of his career, his work was published in canonical collections of current political thought, alongside Peter Kropotkin, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, and Bertrand Russell. Barker, as underscored by Professor Jean Stapleton, “lectured on the social and political ideas of European civilization in historical perspective” and notably did so in a lecture commemorating the 700th anniversary of Albertus Magnus’ first lectures on Aristotle in a European university. Barker’s works on The Character of England and Traditions of Civility continue to reflect his European outlook on civilization, which he held with ever greater conviction throughout his life. The European perspective was the shared cultural foundation of the West and, was fundamentally combined, for Barker, with a sense of Englishness. Barker was not only an English patriot, but a Burkean intellectual whose politics were those of the Liberal Party, though with a qualified conservatism.The foundation of Barker’s thought should be understood as being twofold, first in his Platonism and second in his perspective on Christendom. As Barker noted in his introduction to Aristotle’s Politics, “the translation has been a labour of love, and a permanent consolidation of such leisure as was left to the writer, from the autumn of 1940 to the spring of 1945, among the anxiety and duties of war.” Barker credits Sir Richard Livingston for the encouragement for his translation of Politics, and Barker acknowledged the debt to Merton College by dedicating the work to the Warden and Fellows of Merton College, for it was they who “gave him the opportunity of a scholar’s life, when it elected him to a Prize Fellowship in Classics in 1898.” Barker is a foundational writer in the tradition of English political thought. Barker’s work on classical political philosophy makes him a seminal authority in the discipline, but his work on Western civilization and English political culture
Basque Separatism 123 make him indispensable for understanding the clash of civilizations that defines our present time. See also Aristotle; British Political Thought; Hegel, Georg W. F.: Kropotkin, Peter; Plato; Russell, Bertrand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MICHAEL W. HAIL BIBLIOGRAP HY Aughey, Arthur. The Politics of Englishness. Manchester, U.K.: Manchester University Press, 2008. Barker, Ernest. Greek Political Theory: Plato and His Predecessors. London: Methuen, 1925. ———. The Character of England. Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon, 1947. ———. The Politics of Aristotle. New York: Oxford University Press, 1958. ———. The Political Thought of Plato and Aristotle. New York: Russell and Russell, 1959. ———. Reflections on Government. London: Oxford University Press, 1967. ———. Traditions of Civility. Hamden, Conn.: Archon, 1967. ———. Political Thought of England. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1980. Stapleton, Julia. Englishness and the Study of Politics:The Social and Political Thought of Ernest Barker. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
Barrès, Maurice Maurice Barrès (1862–1923), French novelist and nationalist politician whose eclectic career exerted a major influence on his generation, was born in Charmes sur Moselle, France, in a traditionalist family. His father was a member of the Napoleonic imperial guard. Barrès began legal studies at the faculty of Nancy (Lorraine) before continuing his academic training in Paris in 1883. His work as a journalist in Jeune France (Young France) allowed him to frequent the symbolist artistic circles of Paris. In 1888, he published Sous l’oeil des barbares, the first volume of his trilogy Le culte du moi (The Cult of the Self), followed by Un homme libre (1889) and Le jardin de Bérénice (1891). He was considered the leading authority of the individualist, exalting the quest of new sensations and the satisfaction of senses. In parallel to his literary activity, Barrès was elected as a deputy of Nancy at the French National Assembly in 1889 and retained his seat in the legislature until 1893. Rebelling against the establishment, he became a member of the nationalistpopulist party of Georges Boulanger. This political involvement was one of the expressions of his ideological evolution toward patriotism and traditionalism. The lyrical transcendence of the ego by “historical roots” and “the land and the deaths” was visible also in his new literary trilogy Le roman de l’énergie nationale (Les déracinés, 1897; L’appel au soldat, 1900; Leurs figures, 1902) and in La cocarde, the short-lived newspaper he launched in 1894. During the Dreyfus Affair—in which a French Jewish military officer Alfred Dreyfus was accused of being a German spy in 1894 and deported to Guyana—Barrès became one of the leading authorities of the anti-Dreyfusards. He joined the ultranationalist Ligue des patriotes (League of Patriots) created by Paul Déroulède and wrote a series of violent anti-Semitic articles. In 1906, Barrès was elected to the Académie française (French Academy) and as deputy of Paris. In parliament, he opposed
Jean Jaurès, founder of the French Socialist Party, by refusing to allow burial of the writer Émile Zola, a defender of Dreyfus, at the Panthéon. Despite their political differences, Barrès was one of the first to show his respect at Jaurès’s tomb after his assassination by a French nationalist because of Jaurès opposition to a new war against Germany. Succeeding Déroulède as head of the Ligue in 1914, Barrès became an important figure in World War I (1914–1918), emphasizing the importance of revenge against the panGermanist policy of the Kaiser. Such propaganda provoked harsh debates with pacifists, although the majority of French opinion was in favor of war. Barrès’s private notebooks, however, revealed he was very circumspect about the outcome of the war. Diverging from Charles Maurras, the monarchist leader of the antiparliamentarist Action française (French Action), Barrès revised some of his earlier assumptions after the war by reincluding French Jews as one of four components of the French national essence, alongside traditionalists, Protestants, and socialists. See also Anti-Semitism; French Political Thought. . . . . . . . . . . . JEAN-BAPTISTE HARGUINDÉGUY BIBLIOGRAPHY Curtis, Michael. Three against the Third Republic: Sorel, Barres, and Mauras. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1959. Doty, Charles Stewart. From Cultural Rebellion to Counter-revolution. Athens: Ohio University Press, 1976. Soucy, Robert. Fascism in France:The Case of Maurice Barres. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972.
Bartholomew of Lucca See Ptolemy of Lucca.
Basque Separatism The Basque region (País Vasco) lies in the northern part of Spain on the border with France. Basque separatism reflects the Basques’ desire to establish an independent state that encompasses four Spanish regions—Vizcaya, Guipúzcoa, Álava (together País Vasco), and Navarra—plus three French regions—Labourdi, Basse-Navarre, and Soule. The father of Basque separatism is Sabino Arana, founder of the Basque Nationalist Party. Several arguments are made for the creation of an independent Basque state. Supporters note that Basques are the oldest European nation, constituting an independent ethnic group that has historically inhabited four Spanish regions. Some point to their unique language of unknown origin that lacks any clear link to other languages. In the Basque language, the name of their country is Euskal Herria (the people of Euskare), the language is Euskara, and one who speaks Basque is Euskaldun. What is not Euskara is Erdara, and one who does not speak Euskara is Erdaldun. The Basque language is one of the most powerful means of enforcing separatism in the Basque region. For example, ETA
124 Bassett, Reginald (Euskadi Ta Askatasuna), the armed face of Basque separatism, rejected race as a reason for separatism but took the language instead. The region also has formal autonomy (following the Statutory of Autonomy from 1979 and the law enforcing Euskara from 1982). The region is divided into two parts: the Autonomous Community of Basque, in which the Basque language is equal to Spanish, and Navarra, where Basque is the second official language after Spanish. In French regions inhabited by Basques, the language is not officially recognized because the French consider France to be one country with one language and one nation. One of the foundations of Basque separatism lies in the legacy of the fueros (an organization with traditional laws, administering life inside the fuero), which emerged in the eighteenth century from Aragon, Cataluña, Mallorca, and Valencía, but not from Basque. Fueros established relations with internal institutions functioning inside the fueros, such as the General Assembly (Juntas Generales). In Navarra, these councils established executive committees that played a role similar to the executive position of modern government. Difficulties in maintaining autonomy in the form of fueros were encountered, and in 1839 the fueros were terminated. From that year until the civil war in 1936, Basques engaged in a national movement. With the emergence of the dictatorship of General Primo de Rivera (1923–1930), the establishment of the Republic in 1931, and the civil war in 1936, the Basque Provinces (Vizcaya, Guipúzcoa, and Álava) achieved autonomy. Navarra remained a separate autonomous province due to its mixed inhabitants, a situation which continues today. General Francisco Franco Bahamonde (known as General Franco) persecuted and oppressed Basque nationalists along with Republicans. He did not recognize any national identity other than Spanish, and he sentenced Basque opponents to death. The oppression of Franco’s regime led to the creation of ETA in 1958. ETA is primarily a separatist organization, but it is often perceived as a terrorist network because it directly attacks the authorities. Its primary target is not civilians, but civilians have become victims. Franco’s death in 1975 brought a return to democracy and autonomy for the Basques (with general elections in 1977, confirmation of the constitution in 1978, and the Statutory on the Autonomy of the Basque in 1979). ETA, however, continues to fight for independence, with the goal of establishing an independent Basque state. See also Nation; Nationalist Parties;Terrorism, Political. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MARTINA TOPIC’ BIBLIOGRAP HY Conversi, Daniele. The Basques, the Catalans, and Spain: Alternative Routes to Nationalist Mobilisation. London: Hurst, 1997. Del Giorgio, J. F. The Oldest Europeans:Who Are We? Where Do We Come From? What Made European Women Different? N.p.: A.J. Place, 2006. Hooper, John. The Spaniards: A Portrait of the New Spain. London: Penguin, 1986. Kurlansky, Mark. The Basque History of the World. New York: Walker, 1999. Lecours, Andre. Basque Nationalism and the Spanish State. Reno: University of Nevada Press, 2007.
Payne, Stanley G. A History of Spain and Portugal,Vol. II. Chicago: University of Wisconsin Press, 1973. Pérez-Agote, Alfonso. The Social Roots of Basque Nationalism. Reno: University of Nevada Press, 2006. The Political Constitution of the Spanish Monarchy: Promulgated in Cádiz, the Nineteenth Day of March. N.d., www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/ SirveObras/c1812/12159396448091522976624/index.htm.
Bassett, Reginald Reginald Bassett (1901–1962) was an English political scientist who started out on the left, being a member of the Independent Labour Party in his youth. He turned to the right in 1931, when Labour Prime Minister J. Ramsay MacDonald became head of a coalition government dependent on the votes of conservatives and cutting public expenditure in the face of the Great Depression (1929–1939). This political progression made Bassett’s writings critical of the prevailing Marxist-inspired criticisms of parliamentary government put forth by British political theorists Harold Laski; G. D. H. Cole; and Sir Oswald Mosley, who led the British Union of Fascists from 1932 to 1940. Bassett left school young to work as an office clerk, and at the age of twenty-five he won a scholarship to study at Oxford. After graduation he spent fifteen years as an Oxford extramural tutor. In 1945 he became a tutor for trade union studies at the London School of Economics. In 1950 he received a tenured post in the Department of Government and was a professor there at the time of his death. In The Essentials of Parliamentary Democracy (1935), Bassett endorsed the value of parliamentary tradition of government by discussion and consent. He interpreted parties as offering contrasting alternatives for policy, which were then resolved by compromises around a central position. Bassett offered a dynamic interpretation of how parties and politicians adapted to events rather than following ideologies to potentially revolutionary or counter-revolutionary extremes. The result was that while policies altered, a cross-party political consensus was maintained. The victory in World War II (1939–1945) revived respect for established institutions of democracy among British academics. By the early twenty-first century, much of Bassett’s book appeared consistent with mainstream political science, just as it was with Whiggish nineteenth century British views. It shows its age in not allowing for the prospect of Parliament turning into an arena in which parties competed for votes by rancorously attacking their adversaries rather than deliberating about policies and party leaders, and television becoming more important than Parliament as the chief sphere of politics. At the time of its publication, Essentials of Parliamentary Democracy was an overt challenge to class conflict theories of British government and to Britons who sympathized with undemocratic forms of government in the Soviet Union, Nazi Germany, or fascist Italy. No attention is given in the book to the New Deal, the domestic reform program instituted by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Bassett continued with his revisionist approach to contemporary history with studies of the absence of League of Nations action against Japan when it annexed Manchuria (Democracy and Foreign Policy, 1952) and of the events that led
Bauer, Otto 125 to Ramsay MacDonald resigning as the Labour prime minister and reassuming office as a National Government prime minister (Nineteen Thirty-One: Political Crisis, 1958). Bassett’s papers are deposited in the London School of Economics archive. See also British Political Thought; Cole, George Douglas Howard; Laski, Harold Joseph; Parliamentary Democracy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RICHARD ROSE BIBLIOGRAP HY Bassett, Reginald. The Essentials of Parliamentary Democracy. London: Macmillan, 1935. ———. Democracy and Foreign Policy. London: Longmans, 1952. ———. Nineteen Thirty-One: Political Crisis. London: Macmillan, 1958.
Baudrillard, Jean Jean Baudrillard (1929–2007) was a French social, cultural, and political theorist; a philosopher; and a sociologist. Even though he has usually been presented as a representative for French postmodern theory and sometimes associated with poststructuralism, post-Marxism, and other contemporary schools of thought, Baudrillard was able to develop a very particular frame of analysis, characterized throughout his large collection of writings by a sharp and provocative critique of the impact of consumerism, the media, and other technologies in the social and political arenas. Baudrillard was born in Reims, France. After concluding his thesis in sociology, Le Système des objets (The System of Objects), he joined the faculty of the Université de Paris-X Nanterre, which was considered one of the most radically oriented French institutions during the 1960s. Baudrillard aligned with colleagues and students in the buildup of the May 1968 events, which led to an unprecedented general strike that brought the French government to the verge of collapse. He remained at Nanterre until 1986, when he transferred to Institut de Recherche et d’Information Socio-Économique (IRIS) at the Université de Paris-IX Dauphine. Distancing himself from academic orthodoxy, his works became increasingly popular and reached a wide international readership. Beginning with his early works, Baudrillard took on the structuralist semiotic tradition, further developing and applying the notion of self-referentiality. However, as he considered objects could never be fully comprehended, they would produce a form of delusion (or seduction) among subjects seeking absolute knowledge. As a consequence, individuals and societies would fall into a form of simulated reality or hyperreality driven by a showcase of images, codes, information, and entertainment. This simulation shapes human behavior, providing an experience of such intensity that “actual” life is shadowed. In addition to explaining consumer dynamics (the acquisition of symbols) and the associated reification of the self, Baudrillard applied this framework to political analysis. The cold war (The Illusion of the End, 1992), the Gulf War (The Gulf War Never Happened, 1995) and the September 11, 2001, attacks on the United States (The Spirit of Terrorism, 2002) were examined in three of his most controversial essays.
In these three works, politics and history are presented as sheer illusions. In Baudrillard’s view, in the same way the system of nuclear deterrence made it impossible for the cold war to actually take place, halting historical progress, the Gulf War also was viewed as a “weak event,” a media creation closer to a video game than to a genuine war. He presented this simulated kind of warfare as, as he stated in The Spirit of Terrorism, “the continuation of the absence of politics by other means” (34). The September 11 attacks would be a gruesome example of a strong or absolute event, a symbolic inversion of the rules of the game (with the sole aim of disrupting it), brought about as a violent reaction to the expansion of the post–cold war New World Order. Baudrillard’s rhetoric received considerable criticism, which was often stimulated by his provocative and at times exaggerated style. Critics have argued that some of Baudrillard’s works actually provide grounds for justifying terrorism. Others have seen his denial of reality as a form of instant revisionism or cynical skepticism. Nevertheless, his views generated a large following and led to the creation of the International Journal of Baudrillard Studies in 2004. See also Consumer Society; French Political Thought. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JOÁM EVANS PIM BIBLIOGRAPHY Baudrillard, Jean. Simulacra and Simulation. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1994. ———. The Gulf War Never Happened. Oxford, U.K.: Polity Press, 1995. ———. The Illusion of the End. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994. ———. The Spirit of Terrorism: And Requiem for the Twin Towers. London: Verso, 2002. Butler, Rex. Jean Baudrillard:The Defense of the Real. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1999. Kellner, Douglas, ed. Jean Baudrillard: A Critical Reader. Oxford, U.K.: Blackwell, 1994.
Bauer, Otto Otto Bauer (1881–1938) was one of Austria’s most prominent twentieth-century social-democratic statesmen. Born in Vienna, Austria-Hungary, he was expected to take over his father’s textile business but instead dedicated himself to the cause of Marxism. Bauer was both a brilliant theoretician and a man deeply engaged in real-world politics. He earned a doctorate in law from the University of Vienna in January 1906 and in the following year became secretary of the social-democratic faction in parliament. He was editor of the social-democratic Arbeiterzeitung (Workers’ Newspaper), for which he also regularly wrote articles, and helped found the influential Austro-Marxist journal Der Kampf (The Struggle). His first major work, The Nationalities Question and Social Democracy (1907), is considered a classic Marxist study of the dual forces of socialism and nationalism. He viewed modern nations as communities of character (Charaktergemeinschaften) that emerged out of communities of fate (Schicksalsgemeinschaften) and argued that conflict among the dozen nations comprising the Austro-Hungarian Empire was due primarily to class struggle.
126 Bayesian Analysis Bauer fought in World War I (1914–1918), was captured on the eastern front by the Russians, and survived three years as a prisoner of war. Upon his return to Austria after the war, he resumed activity in the Social Democratic Party and served from 1918 to 1919 as foreign minister in the first revolutionary Austrian government. In this official capacity, he advocated Austrian unification with Germany and even signed a secret annexation agreement because, like many socialists at the time, he believed it would lead to greater solidarity among the proletariat. The Allies, however, subsequently forbade unification in the 1919 Treaty of Saint-Germain. Among Bauer’s collected works, The Austrian Revolution (1923) stands out as a particularly insightful and detailed analysis of the role of class in Austria’s transition from multinational empire to modern nation-state. Always a fierce defender of the working class, Bauer and others in the left wing of the Social Democratic Party declared in the 1926 Socialist Declaration of Linz that, should social democracy not be realized through peaceful and democratic means, they would not rule out “defensive violence” to achieve their ends. In addition to being the intellectual leader of the Social Democratic Party, he served from 1929 until 1934 as a representative in parliament. Following a brief civil war in February 1934, in which the leadership of the Social Democratic Party was arrested and imprisoned, Bauer fled to Czechoslovakia. Austrian Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss subsequently banned the Social Democratic Party and its trade unions and suspended constitutional democracy. A failed Nazi attempt to overthrow the government that resulted in Dollfuss’s assassination in July 1934 marked the end of the First Austrian Republic and the beginning of the ignominious period of authoritarian government known as Austrofascism. Bauer did not live to see the rebirth of social democracy in the Second Austrian Republic after World War II (1939–1945). He died in exile in Paris, France, on July 4, 1938, four months after Austria had been annexed by Nazi Germany, with Europe headed toward a catastrophic war and much of what he had worked for torn asunder. See also Marxism; Social Democracy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ELIOT DICKINSON
BIBLIOGRAP HY Bauer, Otto. Kapitalismus und Sozialismus nach dem Weltkrieg. Vienna: Wiener Volksbuchhandlung, 1931. ———. The Austrian Revolution. New York: Burt Franklin, 1970. ———. “Fascism.” In Austro-Marxism, edited by Tom B. Bottomore and Patrick Goode. Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon, 1978. ———. The Question of Nationalities and Social Democracy. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000. Braunthal, Julius. Otto Bauer: Eine Auswahl aus Seinem Lebenswerk. Vienna: Verlag der Wiener Volksbuchhandlung, 1961.
Bayesian Analysis Bayesian analysis generally refers to statistical analysis that relies on Bayes’ theorem. Bayes’ theorem provides a solution to the general problem of induction, explaining how to rationally update prior beliefs in light of evidence so as to yield posterior
beliefs. In statistical inference, if θ is a parameter of interest, then Bayes’ theorem implies that if p(θ) is the researcher’s a priori probability density over θ (or a priori mass function, in the case of a discrete parameter), and p(y|θ) is the likelihood function for some data y, then the posterior probability density p(θ|y) is proportional to the likelihood multiplied by the prior density. Bayesian statistical inference consists of computing, summarizing, and communicating features of the posterior density. Once considered controversial because of the subjectivism implicit in specifying a prior density, Bayesian analysis has become popular in recent years via the widespread availability of relatively powerful computers and algorithms (e.g., Markov chain Monte Carlo algorithms) that generate arbitrarily precise characterizations of posterior densities, making Bayesian analysis feasible for statistical models with large numbers of parameters or nonstandard probability distributions. Examples in political science include the analysis of rollcall data, hierarchical models, and multinomial choice models. See also Hierarchical Modeling; Quantitative Analysis; Roll-call Analysis; Statistical Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SIMON JACKMAN BIBLIOGRAPHY Gelman, Andrew, John B. Carlin, Hal S. Stern, and Donald B. Rubin. Bayesian Data Analysis, 2nd ed. Boca Raton, Fla.: Chapman Hall/CRC, 2004. Gill, Jeff. Bayesian Methods: A Social and Behavioral Sciences Approach. Boca Raton, FL: Chapman Hall/CRC, 2002. Jackman, Simon. “Bayesian Analysis for Political Research.” Annual Review of Political Science 7 (2004): 483–505.
Beard, Charles A. Charles A. Beard (1874–1948), born to a prosperous family in Indiana and educated at DePauw University, was one the most important historians of the twentieth century. He was influential among scholars, a sought-after public speaker, and a writer for the nonacademic world. Beard is probably most famous for his ability to align significant academic research with a progressive concern about politics. His most famous work, An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution of the United States (1913), looked past high-minded political theory or simple hagiography of the Founders to assert that economic interests best explain the drafting of the U.S. Constitution and its ratification. Indeed, throughout his life, Beard was insistent on exploring the economic forces that could explain American history. This often made him controversial among the public audience that he sought. Although many later historians repudiated his ideas, he remains an important historian who influenced generations of readers to think more realistically about American history and the men and women who shaped it. Beard traveled to England and was a founder in 1899 of the progressive Ruskin House at Oxford, which dealt with labor education. Throughout his life, he remained concerned with public affairs and maintained a progressive desire to end injustice. He eventually became a distinguished and popular professor of history at Columbia University. His resignation from Columbia, in protest over the treatment of antiwar faculty in
Beauvoir, Simone de 127 1917, added to his fame. Later he was involved in the founding of the New School for Social Research in New York. Beard, who always had a lively interest in politics, was elected president of the American Political Science Association in 1926 and the American Historical Association in 1933. He continued to write, often with his wife Mary Beard, popular histories of the United States. These include the two-volume The Rise of American Civilization (1927) and its two sequels America in Midpassage (1939) and The American Spirit (1943), as well as the Basic History of the United States (1944). In the late 1940s he developed a strong isolationist streak and wrote highly critical books about Franklin Roosevelt and what he believed were Roosevelt’s authoritarianism and duplicitous efforts to force the United States into World War II (1939– 1945). Even though these views are largely rejected, they reveal a man who was always critical in the best sense of that word. Beard never accepted the conventional wisdom and kept a skeptic’s eye on the world. Although many of Beard’s judgments have been subjected to rigorous subsequent research that, in the end, undermines his conclusion, Beard remains a vital figure in American history and student of politics. His efforts to bring economic questions to the forefront of political thought are now an accepted way of approaching U.S. history. Even his critics recognize the worth of the questions he asked and the answers he sought. Beard will always be remembered as a writer who sought to balance objective historical research with a progressive’s desire for social justice. See also Economic Theories of the State. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JOSEPH ROMANCE BIBLIOGRAP HY Barrow, Clyde W. More Than a Historian:The Political and Economic Thought of Charles A. Beard. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 2000. Brown, Robert E. Charles Beard and the Constitution. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1979. Hofstadter, Richard. The Progressive Historians:Turner, Beard, Parrington. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992. Martin, James J. “Charles A. Beard: A Tribute.” Journal of Historical Review 3 (Fall 1982): 239–258.
Beauvoir, Simone de French novelist and political activist and critic, Simone Ernestine Lucie Marie Bertrand de Beauvoir (1908–1986) was born in Paris into a bourgeois family. She is best known for her nonfiction work, The Second Sex (1949), in which she argued that women had become “the other” after centuries of being compared with the male norm. Like Mary Wollstonecraft before her, Beauvoir observed that women were bullied into viewing themselves as inferior beings dependent on the males around them, and she proclaimed that women were not born as such but became so through socialization. Her declaration has remained controversial as feminists and other scholars debate the issue of nature versus nurture. Published during the “feminist wasteland” that followed the grant of women’s suffrage in Western democracies in the
Simone de Beauvoir’s controversial work The Second Sex asserted that women were made to feel inferior to and dependent on men through socialization. source: Getty Images
early twentieth century, The Second Sex issued a wake-up call to women around the world. The book combined with Beauvoir’s lectures in the United States to provide the foundation for the second wave of American feminism that began with the publication of Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique in 1963. By the 1970s, Beauvoir had revaluated earlier political positions and endorsed the right to reproductive freedom and lobbied for laws to protect women from domestic violence. Rebelling against her Catholic upbringing, Beauvoir’s body of work endorsed existentialism, the notion that individuals are responsible for their own fate. She did not believe in God and rejected the rationalist concepts of classical liberalism that had been dominant in Western political thought since the Enlightenment. Beauvoir refused to accept the notion that human nature was formed by either society or the mode of production, arguing that individuals form their own nature. Beauvoir received attention for her nontraditional decadeslong relationship with fellow writer Jean Paul Sartre, her mentor, friend, and lover, whom she met as a student at the Sorbonne in 1926. Despite her commitment to Sartre, Beauvoir refused to marry or to give birth. In addition to Sartre, Beauvoir’s worldview was heavily influenced by philosophers G. W. F. Hegel, Edmund Husserl, Karl Marx, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and by the groundbreaking work of psychiatrist Sigmund Freud. In 1945, Beauvoir and Sartre joined fellow existentialist writer Maurice Merleau-Ponty in founding the highly respected French political journal, Les Temps Moderne. Beauvoir’s
128 Beccaria, Cesare first novel, She Came to Stay (1943), was followed by Ethics of Ambiguity (1948), which was a critique of Hegel’s views on the individual. In 1951, Beauvoir published a scathing criticism of the Marquis de Sade, Must We Burn Sade? and continued the critique in Djamila Boupacha (1962). Repudiating monogamy, Beauvoir had a tempestuous affair with American novelist Nelson Algren and penned a fictionalized version of the affair in The Mandarins (1954). Beauvoir was a prolific writer for more than forty years. Among her many works, she addressed the issue of death both personally and philosophically in All Men Are Mortal (1946), A Very Easy Death (1966), and A Farewell to Sartre (1984) and dealt with the realities of aging in Coming of Age (1972). See also Feminism; Feminist Movement; French Political Thought; Wollstonecraft, Mary;Women’s Suffrage. . . . . . . . . . . . . ELIZABETH RHOLETTER PURDY BIBLIOGRAP HY Bainbrigge, Susan. Writing against Death:The Autobiographies of Simone de Beauvoir. New York: Rodopi, 2005. Beauvoir, Simone de. The Second Sex. New York: Knopf, 1975. Card, Claudia, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Simone de Beauvoir. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003. Scarth, Fredrika. The Other Within: Ethics, Politics, and the Body in Simone de Beauvoir. Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2004. Schole, Sally J. On Beauvoir. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 2000.
Beccaria, Cesare Cesare Beccaria (1738–1794), a key figure of the Italian Enlightenment, established his reputation as a political writer with On Crimes and Punishments, published anonymously in 1764.Widely read in the eighteenth century, the pamphlet was prominent in debates on penal reform in Europe and colonial America. Born in Milan, Beccaria was sent, at the age of eight, to a Jesuit school in Parma, where his “sentiments of humanity” were “stifled by eight years of fanatical and servile education” (Beccaria 2008, xvii) as he later recalled. After studying law at the University of Pavia from 1754 to 1758, he returned to Milan and frequented the city’s literary salons. There he befriended Pietro Verri, a writer and intellectual who founded his own circle in 1761, bringing Beccaria with him. Beccaria traced his “conversion to philosophy” to this milieu with readings of, among others, Charles-Louis de Secondat Montesquieu’s Persian Letters (1721) and Claude-Adrien Helvétius’ De l’esprit (On the Mind, 1759). Beccaria’s first work, a study of currency problems in the Milanese state published in 1762, grew out of this experience. His writings, like others of the coterie, aimed to influence a receptive Habsburg administration in Lombardy. In On Crimes and Punishments, Beccaria combined social contract theories with utilitarianism to criticize existing criminal jurisprudence, which he held to be unnecessarily cruel, ineffective, arbitrary, and too often muddled with religious notions such as the expiation of sin. For Beccaria, laws sometimes unfairly protected the particular interests of class
and clergy, in part through the “terrible and perhaps unnecessary right” (2008, 43) to property. A more just social order, he argued, would craft laws to achieve “the greatest happiness shared among the greatest number” (9). In Beccaria’s view, laws should be written clearly and enforced by impartial judges. Trials should be public and by a jury of one’s peers, and punishments prompt and proportional to the crimes committed. Beccaria argued that detentions prior to trial must be made on the basis of law rather than at the sovereign’s whim and that torture should be eliminated because it was unreliable in securing accurate information and constituted a punishment prior to the determination of guilt. Long prison sentences and hard labor were to be used for serious crimes. The death penalty was to be abolished as an ineffective deterrent and gross spectacle that was illegitimate under the very terms of the social contract. In Italy, On Crimes and Punishments was attacked by a Benedictine friar, Ferdinando Facchinei, who denounced its contractualist postulates and branded Beccaria a socialist. Nonetheless, the pamphlet saw several editions in the span of two years. Parisian philosophes championed the text, praised Beccaria as a “defender of humanity,” and invited him to Paris in 1766. A French translation appeared in 1765, followed shortly by editions in other European languages. A substantial commentary by Voltaire further raised the book’s visibility. Catherine II sought Beccaria’s guidance in reforming Russia’s criminal codes, but his shyness forced him to retreat from the public spotlight. He taught economics in Milan for two years, wrote briefly on aesthetics, and took various positions in the Lombard administration, for which he wrote numerous policy recommendations. In a 1792 report, Beccaria reaffirmed the ineffectiveness of capital punishment and added a further reason for its abolition: namely, its irrevocability in the event of an erroneous execution. See also Bentham, Jeremy; Capital Punishment; Social Contract; Utilitarianism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AARON THOMAS BIBLIOGRAPHY Beccaria, Cesare. On Crimes and Punishments and Other Writings, edited by Richard Bellamy, translated by Richard Davies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. ———. On Crimes and Punishments and Other Writings, edited by Aaron Thomas, translated by Aaron Thomas and Jeremy Parzen. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2008. Maestro, Marcello. Cesare Beccaria and the Origins of Penal Reform. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1973. Venturi, Franco. Italy and the Enlightenment: Studies in a Cosmopolitan Century, translated by Susan Corsi. London: Longman, 1972. Young, David. “Cesare Beccaria: Utilitarian or Retributivist?” Journal of Criminal Justice 11, no. 4 (1983): 317–326.
Beer, Samuel Hutchison Samuel Hutchison Beer (1911–2009) was an Eaton professor of the science of government at Harvard University and one of America’s most distinguished political scientists, especially
Behavioral Game Theory 129 renowned for his writings on British politics and American federalism. Beer received his undergraduate education at the University of Michigan, graduating with a bachelor of arts in 1932, and was a Rhodes Scholar at Oxford University from 1932 to 1935. After working as an occasional speech writer for Franklin Roosevelt from 1935 to 1936, Beer became a reporter for the New York Post in 1936 and worked as a writer at Fortune magazine from 1937 to 1938. Beer’s long career at Harvard University, begun as a graduate student in 1938, was interrupted by his service as a captain in the American military during World War II (1939–1945). After finally receiving his PhD from Harvard in 1943, he returned to the university after the war, teaching there until his retirement in 1981. For more than thirty years his lecture course, Western Thought and Institutions, the longest-running of Harvard’s famous postwar general education courses, was an inspiration to thousands of students, among them such notables as Henry Kissinger and William Rehnquist. Beer published his Harvard dissertation as The City of Reason (1949), a work of political theory drawing on the philosophy of A.N. Whitehead and defending liberalism against the totalitarian threat. His Treasury Control: The Co-ordination of Financial and Economic Policy in Great Britain (1956) was a penetrating look into what had previously been the secretive workings of a key institution of the British cabinet. In 1965 his masterful study of British political parties and reigning ideologies, Modern British Politics: A Study of Parties and Pressure Groups (the first American edition was titled British Politics in the Collectivist Age) appeared. Arguing, among other things, that great moral ideas continue to shape political conflict in the age of interest groups, it is considered one of the most influential studies of British politics ever written, winning the Woodrow Wilson Foundation Award in 1966. Subsequent publications include The British Political System (1974) and Britain against Itself: Political Contradictions of Collectivism (1982). The latter traces the self-defeating pluralism, political overload, and “scramble for benefits” of 1970s British politics to the end of an inherited culture of deference and the erosion of class as a basis for party support. In 1993 Beer published To Make a Nation: The Rediscovery of American Federalism, in which he argued that the historical origins of American federalism do not support the conservative or “states’ rights” view of the system. While teaching and publishing, Beer continued to be active in American politics, serving as national chair of Americans for Democratic Action from 1959 to 1962. He was elected president of the American Political Science Association (APSA) in 1977. During congressional deliberations on the impeachment of President Bill Clinton in 1998, Beer testified before the House Committee on the Judiciary, arguing against the use of impeachment as a partisan political weapon. Intellectually vigorous and productive until his death in 2009 at age 97, Beer devoted his later research and writings to the search for an American public philosophy adequate to challenges of governance in the twenty-first century.
See also British Political Thought; Federalism; Political Theory; States’ Rights. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STEPHEN HOLMES BIBLIOGRAPHY Beer, Samuel. The City of Reason. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1949. ———. Treasury Control: The Co-ordination of Financial and Economic Policy in Great Britain. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1956. ———. Modern Political Development. New York: Random House, 1973. ———. Britain against Itself:The Political Contradictions of Collectivism. Norton, 1982. ———. Modern British Politics: Parties and Pressure Groups in the Collectivist Age. Norton, 1982. First published as Modern British Politics: A Study of Parties and Pressure Groups, London: Faber and Faber, 1965, and as British Politics in the Collectivist Age, New York: Knopf, 1965. ———. To Make a Nation:The Rediscovery of American Federalism. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993.
Behavior, Political See Political Attitudes and Behavior.
Behavioral Game Theory Behavioral game theory is a recent approach that adapts game theory to explain and accommodate experimental results that violate typical game theoretic predictions. Game theory applies mathematical analysis to understand human behavior. In particular, game theory assumes that individuals will attempt to form best response strategies to what they believe a partner or opponent will do. The analysis relies on some assumptions, including that individuals are self-interested actors who plan ahead and maximize their expected utility (try to obtain the best possible outcome, given constraints). One limitation to testing game theory is that many of its predictions are based on variables that are difficult or impossible to observe empirically: personal costs, preferences, strategies, and information. The use of experimental economics allows experimenters to specify these factors and to vary them systematically or to hold them constant in order to observe whether the predicted effects occur. Results from laboratory experiments have frequently been in conflict with game theoretic predictions. These disparities occur in a number of dimensions—all of which call into question key assumptions in game theory. Larry Samuelson argues that the role of experimental results that challenge existing theory is to indicate how to make improvements. Behavioral game theory generalizes the theory by relaxing assumptions that experiments highlight as questionable to incorporate these findings. Laboratory experiments reveal that instead of being purely self-interested, additional considerations often affect strategies and decisions. Other-regarding behavior, or a concern for fairness, is frequently apparent. Subjects often offer too much in ultimatum bargaining games—games in which a player proposes a share of an amount of money to another who can either accept the proposal or reject it, leaving nothing for either player. This tendency has been seen as a concern for
130 Bellarmine, Robert fairness either in terms of a desire for equality or in guessing that the responder will reject an unfair offer. Experiments also reveal that people do not engage in as much backward induction as game theory would predict. Most players will go no further than two steps of iterated reasoning. Theorists have argued that we should not expect to see subgame-perfect game theoretic behavior, as economists themselves have to work to derive the “proper” proposals in bargaining games. Others note that as a player doubts that an opponent is selecting best response strategies, that player’s choice of strategy can vary also. Behavioral game theory has a number of ways to account for these tendencies. Behavioral game theory extends game theory to incorporate the bounded rationality and learning that are seen in the laboratory. Quantal response analysis depicts a form of bounded rationality in which players use decision rules where probabilities for choices of action are positively, but imperfectly, related to payoffs. Players can form beliefs about the probability that an opponent will play any given strategy. If a player is completely random, not responsive to expected payoffs, we should expect a wide distribution of results. When players are completely responsive to payoffs, the results converge to the Nash equilibria.This type of extension allows understanding and analysis of behavior that should not occur according to standard game theoretic results. See also Game Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . KATRI SIEBERG BIBLIOGRAP HY Binmore, Kenneth, G., John Gale, and Larry Samuelson. “Learning to Be Imperfect: The Ultimatum Game.” Games and Economic Behaviour 8, (1995): 56–90. Binmore, Kenneth, Avner Shaked, and John Sutton. “A Further Test of Noncooperative Bargaining Theory: Reply.” American Economic Review 78 (September 1988): 837–839. Bolton, Gary, and Axel Ockenfels, “ECR: A Theory of Equity, Reciprocity, and Competition.” American Economic Review 90 (March 2000): 166–193. Camerer, Colin F. Behavioral Game Theory: Experiments in Strategic Interaction. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2003. ———. “Behavioral Game Theory: Predicting Human Behavior in Strategic Situations.” In Advances in Behavioral Economics, edited by Colin F. Camerer, George Lowenstein, and Matthew Rabin, 374–392. New York: Princeton University Press, 2004. Capra, C. Monica, Jacob K. Goeree, Rosario Gomez, and Charles A. Holt. “Anomalous Behavior in a Traveler’s Dilemma?” American Economic Review 89 (June 1999): 678–690. Goeree, Jacob K., and Charles A. Holt. “Ten Little Treasures of Game Theory and Ten Intuitive Contradictions.” American Economic Review 91 (December 2001): 1402–1422. Kirchsteiger, Georg. “The Role of Envy in Ultimatum Games.” Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 25 (December 1994): 373–389. McKelvey, Richard D., and Thomas R. Palfrey. “An Experimental Study of the Centipede Game.” Econometrica 60 (July 1992): 803–836. Nagel, Rosemarie. “Unraveling in Guessing Games: An Experimental Study.” American Economic Review 85 (December 1995): 1313–1326. Palfrey, Thomas R. “McKelvey and Quantal Response Equilibrium.” In Positive Changes in Political Science:The Legacy of Richard D. McKelvey’s Most Influential Writings, edited by John Aldrich, James Alt, and Arthur Lupia, 425–441. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2007. Roth, Alvin E. “Bargaining Experiments.” In The Handbook of Experimental Economics, edited by John H. Kagel and Alvin E. Roth, 253–348. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995.
Samuelson, Larry. “Economic Theory and Experimental Economics.” Journal of Economic Literature 43, (March 2005): 65–107. Schotter, Andrew, Avi Weiss, and Inigo Zapater. “Fairness and Survival in Ultimatum and Dictatorship Games.” Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 31, no. 1 (October 1996): 37–56.
Bellarmine, Robert Cardinal and Doctor of the Church, Jesuit Robert Bellarmine (1542–1621) became a leading Catholic theologian and controversialist who is best known for his defense of Catholic doctrine and for his theory of indirect papal authority in temporal affairs. Born in Montepulciano, Italy, Bellarmine made his first vow as a Jesuit in 1560. After studying Aristotelian philosophy and Thomistic theology, Bellarmine was sent by the Jesuit Father General to Louvain, where his focus on the defense of Catholic doctrines took shape as he taught theology in a university city on the front line of the Catholic response to Reformers. In 1576, Bellarmine returned to Rome to teach English and German Catholic missionaries. He continued in this position until 1588, and it was during this period that he published Disputationes de Controversiis Christianae Fidei adversus hujus temporis haereticos (1586–1593).This examination of Protestant theology was an unusually balanced assessment for the time designed to better equip Catholic missionaries in disputes rather than score rhetorical points in polemical exchanges. The work also was wide ranging and, in conjunction with his De translatione Imperii Romani (1584), provided the first clear statement of his ideas about the nature of papal authority. In the 1590s, Bellarmine was appointed to important positions first within the Society of Jesus and then within the papal court, culminating in his being named cardinal in 1599 by Clement VIII (1592–1605). Under Pope Paul V (1605–1621), Bellarmine became a leading advocate for the church in a series of controversies concerning papal authority, especially a dispute caused by James I of England’s requirement of an oath of allegiance from all his subjects in 1607.The issues at stake in these disputes ultimately resulted in Bellarmine fully articulating his theory of papal authority, perhaps best expressed in his Tractus de potestate Summi Pontificis in rebus temporalibus adversus Gulielmum Barclaeum (1610), written in response to Scottish royalist and Catholic William Barclay’s assertions in support of absolute royal authority. In Tractus, Bellarmine advocated a sophisticated theory of papal authority that granted the pontiff indirect power in temporal affairs. Bellarmine defined papal authority within narrow limits. He granted the pope sovereign jurisdiction over all Christians and over all temporal matters when they affected spiritual matters, but he carefully distinguished between ordinary and direct jurisdiction and the extraordinary jurisdiction that the pope possessed over secular rulers. According to Bellarmine, the pope possessed temporal authority over secular rulers only to protect the souls of the faithful and only after he had exhausted all other remedies. Even then the pope’s power remained indirect: he could admonish, excommunicate, and, if all else failed, remove subjects from their obligations to their secular ruler, but under
Bentham, Jeremy 131 no circumstances could a pope work to remove a ruler from power. In an age of uncompromising polemical exchanges between promoters of papal and secular authority, Bellarmine’s was a carefully balanced theory that ultimately pleased neither group. Bellarmine died in 1621 but was canonized as a defender of the church only in 1930. See also Papacy; Roman Catholic Social Thought. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ERIC NELSON BIBLIOGRAP HY Bellarmine, Robert. Opera Omnia, 12 vols, edited by Justinus Fèvre. Paris: Vivès, 1870–1874. Brodrick, James. Robert Bellarmine, Saint and Scholar. London: Blackwell, 1961.
Bentham, Jeremy Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832), inventor of the term international, was one of the greatest political and legal philosophers of his time. As the founder of utilitarianism, he has remained a controversial figure in the history of political thought, subject to much praise and criticism at once. His greatest follower, John Stuart Mill, described him as a “one-eyed man who offered philosophy a new method of analysis,” while his most notable critic, Karl Marx, referred to him as an “insipid, pedantic, leather-tongued oracle of the commonplace bourgeois intelligence of the nineteenth century.” Whether or not they approved of his views, none of the influential political thinkers of the last two centuries could afford to ignore this great philosopher. Born in London, Bentham was the son of a wealthy lawyer. He too studied law but never practiced it, preferring instead to focus on law “as it ought to be.” He remained a committed advocate of judicial and political reform throughout his life. His Panopticon project, for example, is among the most innovative prison reform proposals of all time. His persistent criticism of and elaboration on “political fallacies” was intended to pave the way for meaningful political reform. Bentham’s normative views were distinctively secular on the one hand and grounded on an exploration of existing practice on the other. During the American and French revolutions, he rejected the idea of natural rights. Bentham’s thought is frequently associated with legal positivism. Bentham is most famous (and notorious) for his concept of “utility” aimed at calculating and, by implication, manipulating human motivations. For him, it is possible to rank order the motives for human action according to their preeminence. “Purely social” motives are morally best, followed by semisocial, asocial, and dissocial motives. Asocial motives (i.e., self-interest) are the most common, uniform, and powerful, followed by semisocial, purely social, and dissocial motives. Every human action, in Bentham’s view, is ultimately motivated by a desire to gain pleasure and avoid pain. Even when one acts benevolently toward another, one does so because one finds pleasure in helping the other person. Ultimately, for Bentham, the degree of pleasure is calculable through the use of such variables as intensity, duration, or extent—a
Jeremy Bentham, founder of utilitarianism, believed that the motivation behind every human action was to gain pleasure and avoid pain. source: Getty Images
principle known as felicific calculus. Taken together, these ideas led Bentham to systematize his famous normative agenda: “the greatest happiness of the greatest number.” Bentham published his most well-known concise treatment of utility, An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, in 1789. He was a prolific yet somewhat disorganized writer, with a crowded intellectual agenda. He never married and reportedly lived an eccentric life.When he died in London in 1832, he left behind some seventy thousand unpublished manuscript pages contained in some eighty wooden boxes. The first comprehensive collection of Bentham’s works was published posthumously by John Bowring in eleven volumes in 1843. The organization and editing of his original work still continues today under the auspices of the University College London’s Bentham Project. See also Mill, John Stuart; Natural Rights; Utilitarianism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ES¸REF AKSU BIBLIOGRAPHY Bentham, Jeremy. The Works of Jeremy Bentham, edited by John Bowring. Edinburgh, U.K.: William Tait, 1843. Harrison, Ross. Bentham. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1983. Hoogensen, Gunhild. International Relations, Security and Jeremy Bentham. London: Routledge, 2005.
132 Bentley, Arthur Fisher Parekh, Bhikhu. Jeremy Bentham:Ten Critical Essays. London: Cass, 1974. Schofield, Philip. Utility and Democracy:The Political Thought of Jeremy Bentham. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006. Steintrager, James. Bentham. London: Allen and Unwin, 1977.
Bentley, Arthur Fisher Arthur Fisher Bentley (1870–1957) was an American political scientist and philosopher who worked in the fields of epistemology, logic, and linguistics. Along with his colleague, philosopher and psychologist John Dewey, Bentley also contributed to the development of a behavioral methodology of political science. Bentley, however, did not gain wide recognition in the field until forty years after the publication of his most noted work, The Process of Government (1908). This book laid the foundation of the study of groups by breaking with the pre–World War I (1914–1918) traditions of political science research. Bentley also influenced the Chicago school in the development of value-free, objective analyses. His idea that processbased behavioralism is a basic feature of contemporary pluralist and interest groups later became central to political science. He held that interactions of groups are the basis of political life and rejected statist abstractions. Bentley asserted that group activity was the fundamental datum available to describe and understand the social behavior of people. He sought an end to reliance on all prior ideas, ideals, and concepts, and what he derisively called “mind stuff.” He believed that what groups were, what they did, and what they sought should not be distorted through biased observation and description or through anticipatory conceptual frameworks or limiting paradigms. Government in its various forms was one such group activity manifested publicly. Bentley’s concern was to outline methods, not to obtain results, and his method was only a research protocol, not a philosophical system.The term Bentleyan was added to the political science lexicon as a description of activity free of “mind stuff ” but with purposes and goals contained in the activity and stated in its description. The key to Bentley’s analysis was his use of the term activity as a synonym for interest. Bentley himself was against definitions, which he held to be limiting. Bentley found the thought of German philosopher Karl Marx too rigid and abstract, although he was interested in economics and the economic life. Like Austrian scholar Ludwig Gumplowicz, whom he admired, Bentley found that the only possible solution of the social question lay in a harmonious cooperation of the social groups as far as that was possible. Bentley was a reformer despite his stubborn skepticism. He relied on American progressivism and the constitutional rules that helped to make government benign and curbed the striving for dominance by any one group. He viewed government as extending beyond formal governing institutions to include associations and corporations, and he urged the elimination of notions of sovereignty and the state from political investigation. None of Bentley’s later works focused on politics, government, or economics, with the exception of Relativity in Man
and Society (1926), in which he argued that social scientists should apply a space-time approach and relativism in their investigations. All human action needed to be placed in the social context of its period. His last book was Knowing and the Known (1949), a collaboration with John Dewey. Bentley was honored in 1953 by the American Political Science Association. In 1954 the American Humanist Association voted him Humanist of the Year. See also Dewey, John; Group Relations; Group Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . GEORGE THOMAS KURIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY Kress, Paul F. Social Science and the Idea of Process:The Ambiguous Legacy of Arthur F. Bentley. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970. Ratner, Sidney. “Arthur F. Bentley, 1870–1957.” Journal of Philosophy 55 (July 1958): 573–578.
Berelson, Bernard R. Bernard R. Berelson (1912–1979) was an American behavioral scientist who made significant contributions to communication research, voting studies, and population policy. Born in Spokane, Washington, on June 2, 1912, Berelson graduated from Whitman College in 1936 and received a PhD from the University of Chicago in 1941. In 1944 he became a project director at the Columbia University Bureau of Applied Social Research. In 1951 he joined the Ford Foundation in California and popularized behavioral sciences as a director. Berelson also guided the establishment of the Center for Advanced Study in Behavioral Sciences at Stanford University in California in 1952. Berelson wrote or edited twelve books in social and behavioral sciences, including The People’s Choice (1944; coauthored with Paul E. Lazarsfeld and Hazel Gaudet), and published more than ninety articles. He contributed a very important chapter on the meaning of the voting process in a democracy in Voting: A Study of Opinion Formation in a Presidential Campaign (1986), which he coauthored with Lazarsfeld and William McPhee. He highlighted the fact that most voters are not acquainted with political reality and respond to irrelevant social influences. He stated that “a democracy sets different requirements for different individuals and an electoral system must achieve a balance between various segments of society.” Berelson was highly organized and goal-oriented. He preferred writing in a direct and jargon-free style. He was greatly concerned about the practical, ethical, and value implications of scientific research. For example, in his last publication, he dealt with various ethical issues involved in government efforts toward influencing fertility. He showed great respect for the rights of the people in studies such as Paths to Fertility Reduction: The Policy Cube (1977) and The Condition of Fertility Decline in Developing Countries, 1965–75 (1978). He held the firm belief that rapid population growth suppressed social and economic development and, therefore, all efforts should be made to lower population growth in global interest.
Berle, Adolf Augustus 133 Berelson was convinced that well-researched and evidencebased findings could make a significant practical difference in knowledge-based societies. He encouraged collaboration between research scientists and policy makers. For instance, he evaluated various family planning interventions in Bangladesh, South Korea,Taiwan, and Thailand and sought to convince the governments of these countries that such interventions also could be politically and socially acceptable. He even established a journal called Studies in Family Planning. He played a pioneer role in promoting World Leaders Declaration on Population, which was presented at the United Nations in 1967. Berelson served as a member of the U.S. Commission on Population Growth and the American Future. He excelled at summarizing important scientific works. Fourteen of his articles were published posthumously in a volume edited by John A. Ross and W. Parker Mauldin in 1988. This volume also included Berelson’s full bibliography. Berelson remained the president of the Population Council until 1974, when he resigned due to disagreements with John D. Rockefeller III— the founder and chair of the council. However, Berelson continued as a senior fellow until his death in 1979. See also Lazarsfeld, Paul F.;Voting Behavior. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ASHA GUPTA
BIBLIOGRAP HY Granberg, Donald, and Soren Holmberg. “The Berelson Paradox Reconsidered: Intention-Behavior Changers in the U.S. and Swedish Election Campaigns.” The Public Opinion Quarterly 54 (Winter 1990): 530–550. Mauldin, W. Parker. “Bernard Berelson: 2 June 1912–25 September 1979.” Studies in Family Planning 10 (October 1979): 259–262. Ross, John A., and W. Parker Mauldin, eds. Berelson on Population. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1988. Sills, David L. “In Memoriam: Bernard Berelson, 1912–1979.” The Public Opinion Quarterly 44 (Summer 1980): 274–275.
Berle, Adolf Augustus Adolf Augustus Berle (1895–1971) was an American corporate lawyer, political advisor, diplomat, academic educator, and scholar. Berle’s astonishingly wide-ranging and prestigious career began after his completion of a law degree at the age of twenty-one at Harvard University. Already cast into public life at the age of twenty-four, Berle joined Woodrow Wilson as a representative of the American delegation at the Treaty of Versailles (1919). In a moment of characteristic political intuitiveness, Berle eventually resigned in protest of the Versailles settlement, warning that the treaty would serve as the cause to further wars as opposed to a lasting peace. After establishing himself as a successful corporate lawyer in New York, Berle then turned to academia, eventually earning a professorship in corporate law at Columbia University in 1927, a post he would hold until his retirement in 1963. The remainder of Berle’s time in academia would be balanced with a series of high-profile government appointments. The most important of these include various positions as a
political advisor to presidents Franklin D. Roosevelt and John F. Kennedy, in addition to serving as assistant secretary of state (1938–1944) and ambassador to Brazil (1945–1946). Berle’s diverse career is reflected in the broad scope of his scholarly interests, which include extensive writing on political economy, Latin American affairs, and New York State politics. His most influential and important contribution has been his work on American capitalism, particularly in the realm of corporate governance. Coauthored with economic historian Gardiner Means, Berle’s The Modern Corporation and Private Property (1932) still stands as the central reference point in studies of the relations between key actors within the joint stock company. The main argument of this study is that the historical rise of the corporation from the middle of the nineteenth century has transformed American capitalism by gradually separating ownership from control and power from private property. Berle’s work on corporate governance was interested in changes that had taken place that led to an empowerment of a managerial class separate from labor and capital, its position bolstered by the growing concentration of wealth in the corporate sector and the increasing dispersion of stock ownership across society. Concerned with the implications of managerial power and uncertainties over whose interests it was meant to serve, Berle recommended that certain legal limits be placed on management so that its power should be exercised in the interests of those subjected to its growing influence, including shareholders, employees, and civil society. Through the advancement of the proper legal framework, Berle believed that a culture of corporate responsibility could be instilled that directed managerial power toward the benefit of public interest and society as a whole. In his unique position as architect and practitioner of corporate liberalism, a form of capitalism that purports to be a middle way between the unbridled free market and state socialism, Berle stands as one of the most important political and academic figures of his era. See also Capitalism and Democracy; Political Economy; Property Rights. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SANDY BRIAN HAGER BIBLIOGRAPHY Berle, Adolf A. Power without Property: A New Development in American Political Economy. New York: Harcourt, 1959. ———. Navigating the Rapids, 1918–1971: From the Papers of Adolf A. Berle. New York: Harcourt, 1973. Berle, Adolf A., and Gardiner Means. The Modern Corporation and Private Property. London: Transaction, 1932. Mizruchi, Mark S. “Berle and Means Revisited: The Governance and Power of Large U.S. Corporations.” Theory and Society 33, No. 5 (2004): 579 617. Schwarz, Jordan A. Liberal: Adolf A. Berle and the Vision of an American Era. New York: Free Press, 1987. Van Apeldoorn, Bastiaan, and Laura Horn. “The Marketisation of European Corporate Control: A Critical Political Economy Perspective.” New Political Economy 12, no. 2 (2007): 211–235. Zeitlin, Maurice “Corporate Ownership and Control: The Large Corporation and the Capitalist Class.” American Journal of Sociology 79, no. 5 (1974): 1073–1119.
134 Berlin, Isaiah
Berlin, Isaiah Born in the Latvian capital of Riga, Isaiah Berlin (1909–1997) was a leading liberal political theorist and historian of ideas. Focusing on themes of liberty and pluralism, Berlin contends that because human life is characterized by incompatible but equally legitimate goals, a just political order will embrace the natural diversity of human choices rather than imposing one fixed ethical system. In 1917, Berlin’s family moved to Petrograd during the Russian Revolution. They returned to Riga in 1920 and emigrated to London in 1921. Berlin attended Corpus Christi College, Oxford, and was appointed a lecturer at New College in 1932. That same year he received a Prize Fellowship at All Souls, the first Jew to receive such a high honor. During World War II (1932–1945), Berlin worked for the British government in New York (1940–1942), Washington, D.C. (1942–1945); and Moscow (1945–1946), but he remained at Oxford throughout his academic career. Berlin was knighted in 1957, the same year he was elected Chichele professor of social and political theory at Oxford. In 1966 he became the founding president of Wolfson College, Oxford, and from 1974 to 1978 served as president of the British Academy. He retired from Oxford in 1975. During his life, Berlin also received the prestigious Order of Merit, as well as the Agnelli, Erasmus, Lippincott, and Jerusalem prizes. Berlin’s most well-known work of political theory is his essay “Two Concepts of Liberty” (1958), in which he distinguishes between positive and negative liberty. He defines negative liberty as the absence of external constraints on one’s behavior and positive liberty as the capacity for self-determination. Although these two concepts may appear similar, negative liberty is characterized by the absence of external obstacles, whereas positive liberty requires the presence of a self-determining rational will. According to Berlin, positive liberty carries a danger of totalitarianism because its advocates are “monists” who contend that there is only one way of acting authentically human and those who behave otherwise are slaves to their passions or ignorance. This provides a justification for those who consider themselves wise to oppress those they perceive to be enslaved to their own appetitive impulses. When the enlightened have overcome the irrational empirical selves of these misguided individuals, their real selves finally will emerge to pursue their true interests, which inevitably will harmonize with those of their enlightened educators.Tracing the history of this positive liberty, Berlin shows how dictators of all ideologies, from Plato’s philosopher-kings to the Nazis, have used this notion to justify the suppression of diversity in the name of their monistic conceptions of the good life. Berlin sees negative libertarians as pluralists who maintain that there is a range of ways to act authentically human and that persons should be as free as possible from external constraints to pursue their own ideas of the good life. Many of the choices required may be incommensurable, yet for Berlin the ability to decide for oneself from among these competing
values is the core of human dignity. Even so, Berlin argues that the pursuit of negative liberty also may become oppressive, as when a pure free market allows some actors to dominate others economically. See also Liberal Theory; Libertarianism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RICK PARRISH BIBLIOGRAPHY Berlin, Isaiah. The Power of Ideas, edited by Henry Hardy. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2001. ———. Liberty, edited by Henry Hardy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. Gray, John. Isaiah Berlin. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1997. Ignatieff, Michael. Isaiah Berlin: A Life. New York: Henry Holt, 1998.
Bernstein, Eduard Born in Berlin, Eduard Bernstein (1850–1932) was a leading German social-democratic politician and theorist. His life is a microcosmic reflection of the first century of the German Social Democratic Party (SPD). Like the German labor movement itself, Bernstein started out as a socialist eclectic, then “converted” to Marxist orthodoxy, only to return to an eclectic position that espoused a nonrevolutionary, democratic socialism that recognized Marxism as only one among several important theoretical sources. Bernstein grew up in Berlin in modest circumstances. After a short career as a bank clerk, he joined the SPD in 1872 as a campaign speaker and pamphleteer. Expelled from Germany in 1878 as a result of German Chancellor Bismarck’s repressive antisocialist laws, Bernstein settled in Zurich, Switzerland, from where he edited Der Sozialdemokrat, the rallying point of the underground SPD press. After his expulsion from Switzerland, Bernstein continued the periodical from London, where he cultivated close contacts with Friedrich Engels and leaders of the British socialist Fabian Society. When Engels died, Bernstein served as his literary executor and was widely regarded as one of the leading Marxist voices in Europe. Thus, it came as a shock to his party comrades when Bernstein launched a series of tough criticisms against Marxist theory. In several articles and books between 1896 and 1900, Bernstein rejected the central Marxist dogma of the inevitable collapse of capitalist society and the ensuing revolutionary seizure of power by the working class. In his view, Marx and Engels had painted an unrealistic picture of a revolutionary “final goal.” Bernstein advocated an “evolutionary” road to socialism through peaceful, parliamentary means centered on success at the ballot box and gradual democratic reforms. Stressing the tight connection between means and ends, he insisted that the extension of democracy required democratic methods. He argued that the SPD ought to broaden its narrow working-class base and appeal to the middle class as well, becoming a genuine people’s party. Finally, rejecting the Marxist view that liberalism and socialism constituted diametrically opposed worldviews, Bernstein urged socialists to consider themselves the legitimate heirs of liberalism and embrace the
Bill of Rights 135 Enlightenment language of citizenship, human rights, rule of law, and universal ethics. Although Bernstein’s views became the cornerstones of modern European social democracy after World War II (1939– 1945), they were severely condemned by various European Marxists, including Vladimir Lenin in Russia and Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Kautsky in Germany. When the Bolsheviks seized power in Russia in 1917, Bernstein emerged as one of their earliest and fiercest critics, warning that Lenin’s brand of Soviet communism was based on the erroneous belief in the “omnipotence of brute force.” He predicted, correctly as it turned out, that the Soviet regime represented an odd repetition of the old despotism of the tsars that would lead Russia into a “social and economic abyss.” Bernstein held high political posts in the German Weimar Republic (1918–1933), including as undersecretary of the treasury. During his parliamentary tenure (1920–1928), he concentrated on matters of taxation and foreign affairs while maintaining his busy journalistic schedule. See also Democratic Socialism; German Political Thought, Foundations of. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MANFRED B. STEGER BIBLIOGRAP HY Bernstein, Eduard. The Preconditions of Socialism, edited and translated by Henry Tudor. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993. Originally published as Die Voraussetzungen des Sozialismus und die Aufgaben der Sozialdemokratie, Stuttgart: Dietz, 1899. ———. Selected Writings of Eduard Bernstein, 1900–1921, edited and translated by Manfred B. Steger. Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities International, 1996. Gay, Peter. The Dilemma of Democratic Socialism: Eduard Bernstein’s Challenge to Marx. New York: Columbia University Press, 1952. Steger, Manfred B. The Quest for Evolutionary Socialism: Eduard Bernstein and Social Democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
Bicameralism See Unicameralism and Bicameralism.
Bill of Rights A bill of rights is a list of legally protected rights or immunities enjoyed by citizens or holders of public office.The English Bill of Rights (1689) was drawn up during the Glorious Revolution of 1688 that ended repressive Stuart rule and brought William and Mary to the English throne. It lists such protections as the right to trial by jury, freedom of speech (for members of Parliament only), the right to keep and bear arms (for Protestants only), and other limited rights and immunities. A century later, a more sweeping and inclusive Bill of Rights was added to the United States Constitution in 1791, as the first ten amendments to the Constitution. These amendments were added as an afterthought, for the Founders who met in Philadelphia in the summer of 1787 did not believe that a bill of rights needed to be included in the newly drafted document. This view was, however, hotly disputed during the course of the ratification debate of 1787 and 1788.
Most Anti-Federalist opponents of the proposed constitution, and some strong Federalist supporters of the new constitution, including Thomas Jefferson, decried the absence of a bill of rights in the document drafted in Philadelphia. The Anti-Federalists hammered the point home: Without a bill of rights, the new constitution created a system that is republican in name only. A bill of rights would serve as a reminder to rulers and citizens alike that the government’s authority is limited by its citizens’ inviolable liberties. Didn’t England’s Glorious Revolution result in a bill of rights to which King William agreed to abide? Didn’t the American Revolution of 1776 deserve no less a guarantee? For what was the revolution fought, if not to preserve American rights and liberties? The Anti-Federalists believed that if rights and liberties are to be properly protected, the nature and extent of those liberties must be fixed from the outset. The goodwill or solicitude of rulers or representatives was not to be relied on for very long, if at all. Unless checked by the law and an active and vigilant citizenry, those to whom power is entrusted will abuse it sooner or later. Without an explicit “declaration of rights” to protect “the democratical part” of the citizenry, wrote the pseudonymous Anti-Federalist pamphleteer Brutus (thought by most to be Robert Yates), “the plan is radically defective in a fundamental principle, which ought to be found in every free government” (Brutus 2003, 453–454). Because the arguments in favor of such a declaration are so clear and compelling, its omission is an ominous portent, revealing the malign designs of the Federalists: “so clear a point is this,” Brutus added, “that I cannot help suspecting, that persons who attempt to persuade people, that such reservations were less necessary under this constitution, than under those of the states, are willfully endeavoring to deceive, and to lead you into an absolute state of vassalage” (453). Anti-Federalist objections to the absence of a bill of rights grew louder over the course of the ratification debate. Writing as “Publius” in The Federalist, Alexander Hamilton first derided these objections as confused and incoherent (No. 38). Later, in Federalist (No. 84), he felt obliged to respond, albeit reluctantly and under the heading of “miscellaneous points.” Hamilton wrote, “The most considerable of these remaining objections is that the plan of the convention contains no bill of rights.” He replied by noting that several state constitutions, including New York’s, are also without bills of rights. Acknowledging the force of the Anti-Federalists’ answer to this objection—namely, that no separate bill of rights is needed because provisions for protecting those rights are incorporated into the texts of the state constitutions—Hamilton asserted that the same is true of the new federal constitution as well. “The truth is, after all the declamation we have heard, that the constitution is itself in every rational sense, and to every useful purpose, A BILL OF RIGHTS.” Yet the bill of rights that Hamilton tried to tease out of the text is a motley assortment of legal guarantees, prohibitions, and definitions. The “privileges” of habeas corpus and jury trials are affirmed (although there is no requirement that the jury be composed of one’s peers), and the prohibition of titles of nobility (Art. I, sec. 9) Hamilton offered as positive proof of the rights-respecting character of the new constitution. But,
136 Binomial Electoral System in any event, Hamilton added, a bill of rights is out of place in a republican constitution. Harking back to Magna Carta (1215) and the 1689 English Bill of Rights, Hamilton said that “bills of rights are in their origin, stipulations between kings and their subjects,” and therefore have no place in a truly republican constitution. Hamilton’s argument fell on deaf ears. Although the proposed constitution was eventually ratified by all thirteen states, several did so on the condition that a bill of rights be added as soon as possible. The bill of rights drafted by James Madison and adopted in 1791 explicitly enumerated the rights to freedom of religion, speech, press, assembly, and other protections. By no means a static and unchanging enumeration of rights, the 1791 Bill of Rights—like the Constitution to which it is attached—has been subjected to repeated reinterpretation. The original (or originally intended) meanings of free speech, due process, “takings,” and a host of other rights have been modified in the course of American legal and political history. Successive U.S. Supreme Court cases have expanded the scope and range of the rights enumerated in the Bill of Rights. The First Amendment, in particular, has been the object of interpretive dispute and controversy. For example, freedom of speech and the press has been expanded to mean freedom of expression of various sorts, including artistic and other nonverbal forms of expression. And the Second Amendment, which originally appeared to apply only to members of militias, was in 2008 reinterpreted by the Supreme Court to apply to all law-abiding adult citizens. See also Constitutional Amendments; Freedom of the Press; Freedom of Religion; Freedom of Speech. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TERENCE BALL BIBLIOGRAP HY Amar, Akhil Reed. The Bill of Rights: Creation and Reconstruction. New Haven, Conn.:Yale University Press, 1998. Brant, Irving. The Bill of Rights: Its Origin and Meaning. Indianapolis: BobbsMerrill, 1965. Brutus. “Letters of Brutus.” In The Federalist:With Letters of Brutus, edited by Terence Ball, 433–534. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. Bryner, Gary C., and A. D. Sorenson, eds. The Bill of Rights: A Bicentennial Assessment. Provo, Utah: Brigham Young University, 1993. Hamilton, Alexander, James Madison, and John Jay. The Federalist:With Letters of Brutus, edited by Terence Ball. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. Hand, Learned. The Bill of Rights. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1958. Hickok, Eugene W., Jr., ed. The Bill of Rights: Original Meaning and Current Understanding. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1991. Lacey, Michael J., and Knuud Haakonsson, eds. A Culture of Rights:The Bill of Rights in Philosophy, Politics, and Law—1791 and 1991. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Martin, Robert W. T. The Free and Open Press:The Founding of American Democratic Press Liberty, 1640–1800. New York: New York University Press, 2001. Murphy, Paul L. The Meaning of Freedom of Speech: First Amendment Freedoms from Wilson to F.D.R. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1972. Rutland, Robert Allen. The Birth of the Bill of Rights, 1776–1791, rev. ed. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1983. Stone, Geoffrey R., Richard A. Epstein, and Cass R. Sunstein, eds. The Bill of Rights in the Modern State. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992.
Bill of Rights, International See International Bill of Rights.
Binomial Electoral System The binomial electoral system is a unique legislative electoral system used in Chile. The system is part of the comprehensive reform of the Chilean political system imposed by Augusto Pinochet’s dictatorship, which was defeated in a popular plebiscite in 1988. The binomial system remains the military government’s primary and most controversial institutional legacy. In designing the binomial system, the military government sought to transform Chile’s historic multiparty system by reducing the number of political parties, diminish the power of the left, and provide electoral benefits for the right. Reformers assumed that a small-magnitude (i.e., seats per district) system would reduce the number of political parties, purportedly enhancing stability; however, they knew a single-member district system would shut the right out of congress. Reformers opted for the binomial system to balance the transformational and electoral interests of the military and rightist parties. Under the binomial electoral system, each party or coalition can present two candidates in each of the sixty Chamber of Deputies and nineteen Senate districts. The system uses open lists, where voters indicate a single preference from one of the two-seat lists. Though preference votes are candidatecentered, list votes are first pooled together to determine how many seats each list wins. Seats are then awarded to individual candidates based on their rank order using the D’hondt counting method, which means that the first-place list in a district can only win both seats if it more than doubles the vote total of the second-place list. If it does not, each of the top two lists wins a single seat. In most districts the two largest coalitions (the center-left Concertación and the right-wing Alianza) split the seats, because the only way for a leading coalition to win both is to outpoll its nearest competitor by two to one. The binomial system failed its initial goal of reducing the number of political parties. Rather, parties now compete as multiparty coalitions but maintain separate identities and electoral bases. The system has provided disproportionate benefits for the right. Because the Concertación would require a supermajority in most districts to double the electoral power of the right, and the Concertación’s level of electoral support has hovered around 55 percent and the Alianza’s at around 40 percent, in functional terms the coalitions simply divide seats in most districts, providing an electoral bonus for the right. The system also has succeeded in marginalizing the non-Concertación left, or any small party that fails or refuses to strike an electoral bargain with one of the two major coalitions. Although the first four postauthoritarian Chilean presidents proposed reform of the system, opposition from rightist parties stymied reforms. Proponents of the system contend that it has brought stability and governability to Chile, arguing that small magnitudes have helped transform the historically
Bioethics and Politics 137 fractious party system by providing incentives for the formation of two long-standing multiparty coalitions. Critics argue that it provides a lock on power for the two main coalitions, excludes small parties, and limits representation and accountability, given its tendency to concentrate the power over candidate selection in the hands of elites. See also Candidate Selection; Electoral Reform; Electoral Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PETER M. SIAVELIS BIBLIOGRAP HY Magar, Eric, Marc R. Rosenblum, and David J. Samuels. “On the Absence of Centripetal Incentives in Double-member Districts: The Case of Chile.” Comparative Political Studies 31, no. 6 (1998): 714–739. Rabkin, Rhoda. “Redemocratization, Electoral Engineering, and Party Strategies in Chile, 1989–1995.” Comparative Political Studies 29, no. 3 (1996): 335–356. Siavelis, Peter M. “Continuity and Change in the Chilean Party System: On the Transformational Effects of Electoral Reform.” Comparative Political Studies 30, no. 6 (1997): 651–674. ———. “The Hidden Logic of Candidate Selection for Chilean Parliamentary Elections.” Comparative Politics 34, no. 4 (2002): 419–438. Valenzuela, J. Samuel, and Timothy Scully. “Electoral Choices and the Party System in Chile: Continuities and Changes at the Recovery of Democracy.” Comparative Politics 29, no. 4 (1997): 511–527.
Bioethics and Politics The ethics of scientific technologies and medical practices have always been controversial, and society as a whole has largely decided that a modicum of collective control of science and medicine should be enforced. Debates about this control have come to be generally called bioethical debates, but clarity requires distinctions between three distinct subdebates. The first is clinical bioethics, which is the microapplication of government and institutional policy to the evaluation of the ethics of human experimentation and the treatment of patients in hospitals. For example, every university that conducts research on humans has an institutional review board that applies government ethics policy to individual research proposals, and every hospital must have a bioethicist (or equivalent) on call to resolve ethical dilemmas. A second is regulatory bioethics, wherein groups of professionals make ethical recommendations to government officials on issues outside those considered by clinical ethics. Most influential in this category have been various government bioethics commissions over the years, which have made ethical recommendations to elected and unelected government officials about issues such as reproductive cloning, the definition of death, and the treatment of the subjects of medical research. A third category is cultural bioethics. Here, the debate is not necessarily about policies that should be enacted, but rather about how the society should morally evaluate developments in science and medicine. For example, there is a bioethics debate that takes place in the media over whether genetically enhancing children should be considered morally licit. These three bioethical debates are differently political. Clinical ethics is fairly apolitical, in that the ethics required by the government has not been challenged by any group.
Regulatory bioethics has until recently been fairly apolitical, largely because people with views not in concert with scientific or medical interests were marginalized from participation in these forums. For example, it has been claimed that not a single member of U.S. president Bill Clinton’s federal bioethics commission was opposed to the destruction of embryos, which certainly required making sure that not all views available in society were represented in the commission. With the advent of the George W. Bush administration, a different group of scholars were put in charge of the federal bioethics commission, more of whom were opposed to destroying embryos. The result is that what was once a fairly technocratic enterprise of advising the bureaucratic state from a “neutral” ethical perspective became challenged by social movements in the public sphere, particularly on beginning and end-of-life issues. For instance, the appointment of the commissioners to these once obscure commissions has been the subject of press releases, petitions, and challenges. Cultural bioethics was always political in the broader sense of debate in the public sphere that results in consensus formation. While the issues at stake and the professions involved in shaping this debate have changed since the 1960s, its “politicization” has been constant. For example, whether reproductive cloning is moral is political, and all sorts of social movements, interest groups, and academics are involved in trying to convince the public to accept one position or another. Bioethical debate is not old enough for consensus to have developed on terminology. However, most scholars would say that there are bioethical issues (e.g., reproductive cloning) that can be the subject of political activity, such as campaigns to enact legislation, but that bioethics and bioethical debate refer to the activity of professionals, not ordinary citizens. Moreover, while members of many different professions participate in the three distinct bioethical debates, there is widely acknowledged to be a distinct and dominant profession named bioethics, made up of bioethicists who exclusively participate in these debates. The general ethical approach of the bioethics profession—in contrast to other professions in the debate, such as theology—is to embody liberal democratic procedural ideals. Typically bioethicists claim to not be trying to promote their own values in these debates, but rather are trying to help patients clarify their own values (clinical ethics), or to clarify and utilize what they take to be the common moral principles of Western civilization (regulatory ethics.) Unlike other experts whose expertise is thought to give them an appropriate voice in politics, like climatologists, the very notion that there are ethical experts has always been controversial. See also Biology and Political Science; Science Policy; Science, Technology, and Politics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JOHN H. EVANS BIBLIOGRAPHY Brown, Mark B. “Three Ways to Politicize Bioethics.” American Journal of Bioethics 9, no. 2 (2009): 43–54. Callahan, Daniel. “Bioethics and the Culture Wars.” Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 14 (2005): 424–431.
138 Biology and Political Science Dzur, Albert W., and Daniel Levin. “The ‘Nation’s Conscience’: Assessing Bioethics Commissions as Public Forums.” Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 14, no. 4 (2004): 333–360. Engelhardt, H. Tristram, Jr. “Bioethics as Politics: A Critical Reassessment.” In The Ethics of Bioethics: Mapping the Moral Landscape, edited by Lisa A. Eckenwiler and Felicia G. Cohn, 118–133. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007. Evans, John H. Playing God? Human Genetic Engineering and the Rationalization of Public Bioethical Debate. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002. Kass, Leon R. “Reflections on Public Bioethics: A View from the Trenches.” Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 15, no. 3 (2005): 221–250.
Biology and Political Science Almost from its inception, mainstream political science has insisted that, for all practical purposes, human nature, and, hence, political behavior, is shaped by culture. This basic tenet carries with it three corollaries: (1) humans have no innate political tendencies; (2) our political behavior is solely the product of learning and socialization (in short, of nurture); (3) human nature (and, thus, human political behavior) is malleable. This is traditionally referred to as the standard social science model. Starting in the mid-1960s, this long-dominant paradigm has been challenged by a more biologically oriented approach, usually termed biopolitics. (While others have used the term biopolitics with variant meanings, such as Michel Foucault or Morley Roberts, this entry will use the term in its more restricted sense, to describe the current interest in the relationship between the life sciences and the study of politics, beginning, as is generally accepted, in the 1960s.) Yes, culture is important, its advocates agree, but so are the genetically transmitted behavioral inclinations our species has evolved, as social primates, over literally millions of years. Consequently, they insist, both nature and nurture must be taken into consideration. From this disagreement on first principles there flow important differences as to how political scientists can most fruitfully study and understand political behavior. A concise examination of these differences may be the most effective way of familiarizing the reader with the key premises on which the biopolitical approach is based. The most important include the following.
GENETIC FACTORS AS BEHAVIORAL INFLUENCES As mentioned above, mainstream political science dismisses these entirely. From an evolutionary, biopolitical perspective, however, we share quite a few behavioral traits with other social primate species. Among the most politically important of these are: a proclivity for hierarchical social and political structures characterized by dominance and submission (and unequal access to the good things of life); status seeking; aggression; xenophobia; and nepotistic favoritism.
HISTORICAL EVIDENCE AS A BASIS FOR PREDICTING FUTURE BEHAVIOR Standard evolutionary theory holds that, barring mutation or some profound environmental change, the behaviors a species has evolved are likely to remain largely unchanged
over lengthy periods. Thus, as those in biopolitics see it, when efforts to alter or even prohibit “undesirable” social and political behaviors have been consistently unsuccessful in the past, similar attempts are not likely to be any more effective in the future. They see trying to “change human nature” as analogous to asking a leopard to change its spots. Having greater faith in the malleability of human nature, mainstream political science is more likely to discount past behavioral patterns. Conceivably, this time the leopard might be induced—or compelled—to alter its coloration. Why, then, not try?
USE OF PRIMATOLOGICAL DATA If, according to the accepted wisdom, human behavior is shaped almost entirely by culture and socialization, knowledge about other species, no matter how akin to ours, serves no useful purpose. On the other hand, if our genetic legacy often meaningfully influences how we act, the study of closely related species becomes most relevant. For instance, primatologists have used their research on our nearest relatives in the animal kingdom to consider the evolutionary roots of human behavior, from aggression to altruism. Political scientists, for their part, have explicitly explored how an understanding of primates might inform our theorizing about human politics and ethics.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The study of human behavior from an evolutionary perspective emerged from ethology, a discipline guided by the dictum that, to understand how and why an organism acts as it does, we must study its actual behavior in its natural setting. Both mainstream political science and biopolitics accept experiments as a valid means of inquiry. The latter, however, insists the experiment should mirror, to the extent possible, the challenges and environment the subject(s) would encounter under real-life conditions. For this reason, it is skeptical about the validity of experiments in which subjects, human or other, are placed in a patently artificial setting and are asked to perform tasks that lack meaningful consequences. Biopolitics, with its ethologically derived emphasis on actual behavior, sees survey research, by and large, as a research instrument of last resort.
THE FORMULATION OF PUBLIC POLICY Here, some examples illustrate how a biological perspective might inform policy choices. Evolutionary change almost always entails a tradeoff. Greater size requires greater caloric intake; speed comes at the cost of endurance; a massive protective carapace or shell leads to lessened mobility. Given their neo-Darwinian orientation, those in biopolitics tend to think less in terms of a “solution” to problems like human “vices” and more in terms of what is to be gained and lost by a particular policy. These trade-offs have not been adequately considered, for example, in the ill-fated Eighteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution (which prohibited the sale of alcohol); in the interminible “war on drugs”; or in the consistently futile efforts, literally over the centuries, to prohibit prostitution.
Blackstone, William 139 To elaborate on the last example, Michael McGuire and Margaret Gruter examine the almost certain failure of antiprostitution laws. McGuire and Gruter note the value of an evolutionary inquiry: Both sexes have dispositional tendencies to reproduce, and reproduction-related behavior (e.g., flirting, experimentation with one’s and other’s bodies) begins during adolescence. . . . In effect, both sexes are predisposed and well prepared to engage in sexual behavior. It follows that attempts to control sexual behavior will be only partially successful, a point to which the high frequency of teenage sexual encounters, abortions, and adult extramarital affairs attests. (2003, 35) Given this, what policy suggestions follow? Because prostitution is unlikely to be completely suppressed given human impulses, then limited legalization may make the most sense. This would call for registration of sex workers, making sure that sexually transmitted diseases are controlled, reducing criminal involvement, bringing the workers into the recognized workforce. Of course, some aspects of prostitution would remain outside the law—such as human trafficking and child prostitution. The authors cite Holland and Nevada as localities where successful regulation has taken place.
TOWARD THE FUTURE Launched, as noted above, in the mid-1960s, the biologyand-politics enterprise received official recognition from the International Political Science Association in 1973 with the creation of the eponymous Research Committee #12. After considerable debate over the wisdom of a separate professional organization, the Association for Politics and the Life Sciences was established in 1980, and the first issue of its journal, Politics and the Life Sciences, was published in 1982. As yet, to be sure, a sizable majority of political scientists continues to see political behavior as fundamentally, if not exclusively, the product of culture, socialization, and individual experience. Over the past decade or so, however, a neo-Darwinian approach has been fostering a steadily growing amount of research in anthropology, psychology, social psychology, sociology and, most recently, economics. Conceivably, this may eventually be the case in political science, historically quite susceptible to intellectual trends in its sister social sciences. See also Bioethics and Politics; Foucault, Michel Paul; Political Ecology; Sociobiology and Politics. . . . . . . . . ALBERT SOMIT AND STEVEN PETERSON BIBLIOGRAP HY Blank, Robert H., and Samuel M. Hines Jr. Biology and Political Science. New York: Routledge, 2001. Dahl, Robert A. On Democracy. New Haven, Conn.:Yale University Press, 1998. Degler, Carl. In Search of Human Nature. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991. De Waal, Frans B. M. Peacemaking among Primates. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989. McGuire, Michael, and Margaret Gruter. “Prostitution: An Evolutionary Perspective.” In Human Nature and Public Policy: An Evolutionary Approach,
edited by Albert Somit and Steven A. Peterson, 29–40. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003. Piano, Aili, Arch Puddington, and Mark Y. Rosenberg, eds. Freedom in the World 2006. New York: Freedom House, 2006. Schubert, Glendon, and Roger D. Masters, eds. Primate Politics. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1991. Somit, Albert, and Steven A. Peterson. Darwinism, Dominance, and Democracy. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1997. ———. “Review Article: Biopolitics after Three Decades—A Balance Sheet.” British Journal of Political Science 28 (1998): 559–571. Vanhanen, Tatu. Democratization. New York: Routledge, 2003.
Bisexual Movement See Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Movement, Comparative.
Blackstone, William Sir William Blackstone (1723–1780) was an English jurist and legal scholar whose exposition of English common law continues to resonate in courtrooms in the early twenty-first century. His Commentaries on the Laws of England, published over four volumes beginning in 1765, was a comprehensive yet accessible treatise on the history of common law that proved critical to jurists in both England and the colonies of America. Blackstone’s Commentaries is still cited in American courts of law as one of the foremost influences on the American Founders and a cornerstone of the U.S. Constitution. Born in London, Blackstone studied at Oxford before being admitted to the bar in 1746. He both practiced and taught law to little major public acclaim until the 1756 publication of his An Analysis of the Laws of England, a work comprising many of his lectures at Oxford. In 1761 he was appointed as a counsel to the Crown and was elected to the House of Commons, where he exhibited a mostly Tory ideology. He was knighted in 1770 and appointed as a justice to the Court of Common Pleas, the last formal position he would hold. Many of these appointments can be traced to the fame Blackstone experienced as a result of the success of his collected